By Alessandra Soto As someone who is part of the Latino/Hispanic community, we face different negative cognitive-emotional factors. This article will explore how those factors can affect the Latino/Hispanic community, focusing on push backs and barriers that influence overall mental health and well-being. The Latinx/Hispanic community's socio-cultural contexts, although not universal, affect many individuals within the community. The language diversity includes Spanish and indigenous languages which is a key factor in identity and cultural expression. The dominant religion is catholicism,though there are also significant numbers of Protestants, and more; it is crucial to understand that this community is not monolithic. According to Latino Families: Myths and Realities, Latinos in the U.S. come from various countries, each with unique historical and cultural traditions, leading to a diverse community. The values they hold, Familismo and Personalismo, emphasize family closeness, solidarity, and personal relationships over individual success. The traditional gender roles, Marianismo and Machismo, highlight the self-sacrificing mother and the dominant male, though these roles are evolving. They also go through the process of adapting to a new culture while maintaining core values, which can lead to both challenges and opportunities for growth (Cauce & Domenench-Rodriguez, 2002).  Other factors such as nationality, socioeconomic, migration history, and individual experiences build diversity within these communities.  Traditional Gender Role Perspectives in the Latino community Nunez et al.(2016) studied gender roles and the concepts of Machismo and Marianismo, terms used to describe their relation to negative cognitions and emotions in the Latino community. Machismo is characterized by aggressive masculine pride (Mirandé, 1977; Niemann, 2004), while Marianismo is a form of sexism that encourages  Latina women to be very modest and self-sacrificing, with the Virgin Mary as their role model (Gil & Velazquez, 1996; Niemann, 2004). The researchers focused on several negative cognitions and emotions in relation to Machismo and Marianismo, such as depression symptoms, cynical hostility, trait anxiety, and anger in the Hispanic Community Health Study/Study of Latinos Sociocultural Ancillary Study, OEa cross-sectional; cohort study of sociocultural and psychosocial correlates of cardiometabolic health. Participants, aged 18-74 years old, included individuals from Central American, Cuban, Dominican, Mexican, Puerto Rican, South American, and other Hispanic backgrounds ( N= 4,426). The Relationship between Acculturation and Mental Health According to Brown and Patten, many Hispanics experience socioeconomic disadvantages, leading them to experience negative cognitive-emotional health issues (Gallo & Mathews, 2003; Gallo et al., 2009). This means as they adapt to the new culture and come into areas for inclusivity and equal opportunities, it may be harder for them. The barriers put into society towards minorities can impact acculturative stress as they are not only adjusting to the new society, but they are also seeking inclusivity and opportunities, for example, education, employment, health, and social mobility.  Additionally, acculturation is a significant stressor for Hispanics (Familiar et al., 2011). Acculturation refers to the process by which immigrants adapt to a new culture, requiring them to understand its values, behaviors, and traditions  (Fort, Crema, & Madella, 2015).  Acculturative stress is a major focus in articles studying negative cognitive-emotional factors. Adjusting to a new culture can create stress and impact mental health.  For example, the U.S. is considered an individualistic country, whereas Latino countries are collectivistic  (Krys et al., 2022). It is crucial to note that as Latinos continue to acculturate to U.S. society, they become more aware of discrimination. According to Sirin et al. (2013), immigrant adolescents experience more acculturative stress compared to later generations, which leads to increased mental health issues. As they continue to acculturate to U.S. society, they become more aware of discrimination(Tuppat & Gerhards, 2020).Latinx adolescents who face interpersonal discrimination are linked to lower self-esteem, depressive symptoms, lower academic performance, decreased prosocial behaviors, and physical symptoms (Davis et al., 2016). Lipson et al. (2018) report that about 20% of Latinx college students in the U.S. experience depression (2018). A study by Pichardo et al. (2021) researched a topic about racial discrimination and depressive symptoms among Latino college students related to vigilance and sleep, based on their 194 Latinx college students enrolled at a Midwestern university, which is considered a Hispanic-Serving Institution, answered a Qualtrics online survey link with questions related to the study’s topic. The results reported, on average, moderate levels of sleep quality  (M = 7.88, SD = 2.10; range = 0–12) and sleep efficiency (M = 4.73, SD = 1.40; range = 0–6) (2021). The sleep quality scale was a self-reported survey, which self-reported subjective sleep quality, sleep latency, and daytime dysfunction. In contrast, sleep efficiency only considers the self-reported duration of sleep and time in bed. It’s possible that different types of discriminatory Latinx adolescents found that overt forms of discrimination were linked to decreased sleep quality but not quantity (Huynh et al., 2016).  Addressing a Factor of Acculturative Stress: Discrimination Systematic discrimination, including stereotyping, marginalization, and dehumanization, also affects minority groups (Thompson, 2003). The Hispanic community may bring certain cultural beliefs from their original society, such as machismo, and marianismo, into their new society. This can present challenges as the United States may have more of an open perspective into receiving treatment. This means that the cultural values taught in Latinx countries might not align with U.S. cultural values, leading to conflicts or different perspectives on minority issues related to receiving treatment. Altogether, these various factors can contribute to Hispanics/Latinos’ cognitive-emotional challenges. Colorism, a type of discrimination within the Latino community, also affects mental health. According to a study, darker-skinned individuals are stereotyped and treated differently from school authorities (Thompson & McDonald, 2016). Furthermore, internalized racism has led to discrimination within the Latinx communities, which prefers lighter skinned individuals. This leads to psychological outcomes and trouble for individuals who don’t follow under this preference (Chavez-Due ñas et al., 2014).  Other negative cognitive-emotional factors include, but are not limited to economic stress, language barriers, family dynamics, and stigma around mental health.  Experiencing these negative factors can lead to specific mental health outcomes such as depression, anxiety, and substance abuse. Roche et al. (2020) found that Latinx adolescents who have had a family member deported in the past year are at heightened risk of experiencing suicidal thoughts, alcohol use, and behavioral issues. Their survey of 547 Latino adolescents, aged 11 to 16 years, showed that 24.9% of the participants had family deported and detained in the prior year. They associated this incidence with higher odds of suicidal ideation(27.9%), alcohol use (18.4%), and clinical externalizing behaviors experienced (22.8%).   The growing awareness of the anti-immigrant climate, such as the 2016 presidential election’s anti-immigrant sentiment,  has also impacted stress hormones and cortisol levels among Latinos (Zeiders et al., 2020). Barriers to accessing these mental health services include stigma around mental health and financial constraints. Addressing Stigma and Barriers to Mental Health Treatment in the Latino/Hispanic Community The stigma around mental health is one of the main barriers to treatment (Uebelacker et al., 2012). Two reasons are the fear of  being labeled as “loco” (crazy) (Cabassa et al., 2012) or bringing a “bad name” to their families (Martinez, 2017). Stafford et al. (2019) found that for many participants, the cost of treatment was a barrier to help-seeking. They’ve come across that some are too “pricey” or problems with their insurance, such as no coverage. This research studied the barriers to and facilitators of mental health treatment engagement among Latina Adolescents. There are also other overlapping factors like gender, age, and socioeconomic status that can further complicate the experiences of cognitive-emotional factors.  To address stigma, it is important for mental health providers to use language that acknowledges the normalcy of the stress experienced by adolescents and to highlight the prevalence of mental health disorders among adolescents in the U.S. Additionally, providers should address potential stigma related to depression among adolescents from immigrant families. In order to prevent negative treatment experiences, mental health providers should clearly communicate confidentiality expectations and, when necessary, allow the adolescent to have some control over the disclosure process. To tackle logistical barriers, providers should have knowledge of free or low-cost mental health resources in the community to minimize the impact of cost-related barriers (Stafford et al., 2020). There are various recommendations and solutions towards opening up to treatment, such as  the importance of community programs and resources in addressing cognitive-emotional challenges . Also, potential policy changes that could improve access to mental health resources and support for Latino-Hispanic communities.  In conclusion, negative cognitive-emotional factors can impact the mental health of the Latino community. This article explored various factors, such as acculturative stress, discrimination and racism, and stigma around mental health. These factors can lead to depression, anxiety, substance abuse, and poor sleeping quality. Examining barriers to accessing mental health services, including financial restraints and limited support from families were also discussed. Future research should emphasize cultural sensitivity, intersectionality, and solutions such as competent care, community support, and policy improvements. References  Cabassa LJ, Hansen MC, Palinkas LA, & Ell K (2008). Azucar y nervios: Explanatory models and treatment experiences of Hispanics with diabetes and depression. Social Science & Medicine , 66(12), 2413–2424. doi: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2008.01.054  Cauce, A.M., & Domenech Rodríguez, M. (2002). Latino families: Myths and realities. In J. Contreras, A. Neal-Barnett, & K. Kerns (Eds.),  Latino children and families in the United States: Current research and future direction s. Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers. Chavez‐Dueñas, N. Y. , Adames, H. Y. , & Organista, K. C. (2014). Skin‐color prejudice and within‐group racial discrimination: Historical and current impact on Latino/a populations. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences , 36(1), 3–26. 10.1177/0739986313511306  Davis, A. N. , Carlo, G. , Schwartz, S. J. , Unger, J. B. , Zamboanga, B. L. , Lorenzo‐Blanco, E. I. , Cano, M. A. , Baezconde‐Garbanati, L. , Oshri, A. , Streit, C. , Martinez, M. M. , Pina‐Watson, B. , Lizzi, K. , & Soto, D. (2016). The longitudinal associations between discrimination, depressive symptoms, and prosocial behaviors in U.S. Latino/a recent immigrant adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence , 45, 457–470. 10.1007/s10964-015-0394-x Forcén, F. E., Vélez Flórez, M. C., Bido Medina, R., Zambrano, J., Pérez, J. H., Rodríguez, A. M., & Santos, L. H. (2023). Deconstructing Cultural Aspects of Mental Health Care in Hispanic/Latinx People. Psychiatric annals , 53 (3), 127–132. https://doi.org/10.3928/00485713-20230215-02 Fort, J., Crema, E. R., & Madella, M. (2015). Modeling demic and cultural diffusion: An introduction .  Human biology ,  87  (3), 141-149. https://doi.org/10.13110/humanbiology.87.3.0141 Gil, R. M., & Vazquez, C. I. (2014). The Maria paradox: How Latinas can merge old world traditions with new world self-esteem . Open Road Media. Huynh VW, & Gillen-O’Neel C (2016). Discrimination and sleep: The protective role of school belonging. Youth & Society , 48(5), 649–672. 10.1177/0044118X13506720 Krys, K., Vignoles, V. L., de Almeida, I., & Uchida, Y. (2022). Outside the “Cultural Binary”: Understanding Why Latin American Collectivist Societies Foster Independent Selves. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 17(4), 1166-1187. https://doi.org/10.1177/17456916211029632 Lipson SK, Kern A, Eisenberg D, & Breland-Noble AM (2018). Mental health disparities among college students of color. Journal of Adolescent Health , 63, 348–356. 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2018.04.014 Martinez AR (2017). Intersectionality, voz, and agency: A culture-centered approach to understanding US-born Mexican Americans’ depression experiences. Southern Communication Journal , 82(5), 278–297. doi: 10.1080/1041794X.2017.1347702 Mirandé, A. (2018). Hombres y machos: Masculinity and Latino culture . Routledge. Nuñez, A., González, P., Talavera, G. A., Sanchez-Johnsen, L., Roesch, S. C., Davis, S. M.,  Arguelles, W., Womack, V. Y., Ostrovsky, N. W., Ojeda, L., Penedo, F. J., & Gallo, L. C. (2016). Machismo, Marianismo, and Negative Cognitive-Emotional Factors: Findings From the Hispanic Community Health Study/Study of Latinos Sociocultural Ancillary Study. Journal of Latina/o psychology , 4 (4), 202–217. https://doi.org/10.1037/lat0000050 Pichardo CM, Molina KM, Rosas CE, Uriostegui M, Sanchez-Johnsen L. Racial Discrimination and Depressive Symptoms among Latina/o College Students: The Role of Racism-Related Vigilance and Sleep. Race Soc Probl. 2021 Jun;13:86-101. doi: 10.1007/s12552-020-09304-1. Epub 2020 Oct 18. PMID: 34306242; PMCID: PMC8300542. Roche KM, White RMB, Lambert SF, et al. Association of Family Member Detention or Deportation With Latino or Latina Adolescents’ Later Risks of Suicidal Ideation, Alcohol Use, and Externalizing Problems. JAMA Pediatr.  2020;174(5):478–486. doi:10.1001/jamapediatrics.2020.0014 Sirin, S. R., Ryce, P., Gupta, T., & Rogers-Sirin, L. (2013). The role of acculturative stress on mental health symptoms for immigrant adolescents: a longitudinal investigation. Developmental psychology , 49 (4), 736–748. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0028398 Stafford, A. M., & Draucker, C. B. (2020). Barriers to and Facilitators of Mental Health Treatment Engagement Among Latina Adolescents. Community mental health journal , 56 (4), 662–669. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10597-019-00527-0 Torres, S. A., Sosa, S. S., Flores Toussaint, R. J., Jolie, S., & Bustos, Y. (2022). Systems of Oppression: The Impact of Discrimination on Latinx Immigrant Adolescents' Well-Being and Development. 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Latino early adolescents' psychological and physiological responses during the 2016 U.S. presidential election. Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology , 26, 169–175. 10.1037/cdp0000301

Written By: Alondra Alamillo The Job of a Jury In the courtroom, jurors are presented with the daunting task of deciding a life-altering verdict for the defendant. Although evidence, charges, criminal history, pleas, eyewitness testimonies, the manner in which juror instructions are delivered, among many other factors are expected to be considered; alibis play a unique role in influencing the jury’s decision-making process. Evidence presented by a witness that provides an account of the defendant’s whereabouts in relation to the charges are alibis. While a strong alibi can demonstrate clear innocence, a weak one however can completely jeopardize the credibility of the defendant and the way in which they are perceived. What must be present in an alibi for jurors to identify it as strong versus weak? Could strong alibi evidence be enough to outweigh other forms of evidence jurors consider during deliberation?   Credibility Factors  Physical and person evidence are the two types of alibi evidence that may be used to corroborate, or support, a defendant’s testimony. However, due to how rare physical alibi evidence is in comparison to person alibi evidence, person corroboration is more heavily researched to understand the extent to which it is a factor in decision making and what makes them credible for juries (Allison & Kollar, 2023.) When investigating false alibi corroborations, (Marion & Burke, 2013) believed that for an alibi to appear believable to a jury it must include two important components. First, an alibi must be supported directly by the individual providing it to increase the chances of an innocent verdict (Pozzulo et al., 2015.) Additionally, preferably it should be delivered by a person who has a minimal or nonexistent relationship with the defendant. According to a study conducted by Allison & Kollar (2023), the relationship between the defendant and the individual providing testimony to corroborate their alibi is an important aspect of person alibi evidence. There is an overwhelming distrust in alibis that are supported by people who are socially or biologically related to the defendant.  Corroboration  The idea that jurors perceive alibi corroborations provided by people close to the defendant as disingenuous and weak evidence is well known. If a defendant has a close relationship with the person corroborating the alibi, jurors may categorize their testimony as unreliable evidence. Marion & Burke (2013) tested this idea further to investigate if people really would be willing to corroborate a false alibi (witness providing the alibi) for a person they like (the defendant.) During a collaborative task, the confederate- not a real participant, left the room and depending on the condition they either returned with evidence that they had stolen money or the evidence was absent entirely. When questioned by the experimenter about the missing money, the confederate provided them with a false alibi claiming that both them and the participant remained in the room throughout all of the tasks. Later, the participant was given the opportunity to either corroborate the false alibi or tell the truth. A self-report trust scale served as a pre-study measure for intrapersonal trust levels to help predict the participants decision. If high scores on the lie scale were found, then this predicted the likelihood of the participant valuing social desirability over truthfulness. This is a significant concern when making decisions about which alibis could be reliable (Marion & Burke, 2013).  Unlike the researchers hypothesized,  participants did not often corroborate false alibis in general. However, findings do suggest that witnesses would be willing to lie for either those confederates they believed to be innocent due to the evidence absent cases or the disbelief that they would be dishonest regardless of the stranger or friend categories. When asked to explain their corroboration of a false alibi, many participants claimed they lied because they truly believed that the confederate was innocent despite them leaving the room. The willingness to confirm false wearabouts of the confederate could indicate serious consequences, as in an actual case this would be considered perjury.  Similarly, those who rejected the false alibi did so because they believed the confederate was innocent and determined there was no need to support it. Although this found the self-report trust scale proved to reveal high levels of intrapersonal trust, it was found that it was not necessary for people to like each other in order to corroborate a false alibi. Instead if the participant saw evidence of the confederates guilt, then they told the truth despite any personal connection. The paradigm developed in this study to measure instances of false alibi corroboration suggests that this assumption can lead to harmful discernment of jury perceptions (Marion & Burke, 2013). The absence of a corroborated alibi is also a sign jurors may focus on, since having no evidence to support the defendant’s testimony can weaken it (Pozzulo et al., 2015). Although current research does suggest some aspects of how jurors assess alibis before deliberation, one important thing to consider is that the mock studies do not test for violent crimes or serious felonies. Accounting for a variety of case circumstances could help bridge that gap. References  Allison, M., & Kollar, C. (2023). Alibi believability: Corroborator certainty, cooperativeness and relationship with the defendant. Journal of Investigative Psychology and Offender Profiling , 20 (3), 228–242. https://doi.org/10.1002/jip.1618 Marion, S. B., & Burke, T. M. (2013). False alibi corroboration: Witnesses lie for suspects who seem innocent, whether they like them or not. Law And Human Behavior , 37 (2), 136–143. https://doi.org/10.1037/lhb0000021 Pozzulo, J. D., Pettalia, J. L., Dempsey, J. L., & Gooden, A. (2014). Juvenile offenders on trial: does alibi corroboration evidence and defendant age interact to influence jurors’ perceptions and verdicts? Psychiatry Psychology and Law , 22 (2), 224–234. https://doi.org/10.1080/13218719.2014.937518

Written By: Diyanka Lahane Introduction  People can spend up to one-third of their lives sleeping.  The brain while awake and while asleep can remain equally as active, indicating that dreaming can take place in REM-sleep and non-REM sleep. REM sleep is a period of sleep that is uniquely characterized by rapid eye movement while the eyes are still closed. While brain activity is still the same as when someone is awake, muscle activity is greatly decreased. Arm and leg muscles can become temporarily “paralyzed” and diaphragm muscles become more erratic ( Steck, A., Steck, B., 2016 ) . Eugene Aserinsky and Nathaniel Kleitman (Silber M.H., 2023) are recognized for discovering REM sleep in an experiment that served as a foundation for the modern understanding of dreams. They discovered rapid eye movement occurring over 3-4 cycles in 20 adults during a regular sleep schedule. An in-depth experiment was published by the same researcher years later that indicated the same cycles in sleeping infants. However, medical student William Dement and researcher Kristina Denisova coined the term “REM sleep” and analyzed the original sleep experiments to explain the body physiology behind REM sleep, as Kleitman was accused of not thoroughly detailing their research ( Silber M.H., 2023 ) . During REM sleep, participants exhibited increased and irregular breathing, changes in body temperature, body twitching, and both horizontal and vertical eye movement. This two-part paper will discuss the current research behind dreams and nightmares, including the neurobiology and if dreams or nightmares can be interpreted to physiological or neurological disorders within the body.  Stages of Sleep REM sleep is more than a time to have dreams and nightmares. It allows for the body to repair itself and prepare for the next day. This includes converting food to energy and storing any extra “resources” the body cells do not need. It is even said that sleeping allows for the brain to process all the information input from the day without taking in any new information ( Steck, A., Steck, B., 2016 ) . The sleep cycle is not one long cycle, but rather 4 or 5 repeated cycles that each last around 90-120 minutes. To start, there are two sleeping stages: REM sleep and non-REM (NREM) sleep. When initially falling asleep, the body enters stage 1 of NREM sleep and continues to stage 2 and 3 before entering a REM cycle. Dreaming occurs only during REM sleep. The cycle repeats by going back to stage 1 of NREM sleep ( Cleveland Clinic, 2023 ) .  Stage 1 is the shortest stage and of the lightest sleep. A person can be easily awoken in this stage. Stage 2 is when the signals in the brain are slower and there is not nearly as much electrical activity as Stage 1 or as being awake. Researchers believe these small bursts of energy could be the brain trying to organize the memories/thoughts of the day. Stage 3 is the deepest stage where the brain waves are very slow. This is the time where the body does the most repairing for injuries on the outside and inside of the body. To wake up feeling rested, someone must complete a Stage 3 cycle. If awoken in the middle of this stage, someone might feel more drowsy than before going to bed. Light sleepers tend to spend more time in REM sleep which is the last stage before waking up. Deep sleepers tend to spend more time in deep sleep such as NREM stage 3 ( Cleveland Clinic, 2023 ) .  Neurobiology of REM Sleep: Current Findings Brain Lesions  Brain lesions are different parts of the brain tissue that have been damaged and either do not work at all or have drastically decreased  function effectiveness. When taking a brain scan such as MRI or CT, brain lesions can be identified as either an extremely dark spot or light spot compared to the rest of the scan. Brain lesions can occur for a variety of reasons, the most common being blunt injury, infections, and fetal developmental issues.  A recent article in the “ Trends in Cognitive Science ” journal explains that waking cognitive ability can determine the extent of dreams. If someone has a brain lesion that harms their ability to perceive new faces while awake, their dreams will not have any faces present in them. In other cases, lesions that impair more physical characteristics like motor control can cause erratic movement while dreaming. This can explain severe twitching while asleep that may not occur while awake ( Nir, Y., Tononi, G., 2010 ) . This can even occur with processing color if there is a restricted lesion in a part of the brain that affects visual perception. Brain lesions may impair or limit cognitive ability, but they do not always have negative effects on dreaming. During an experiment, patients with a lesion in the basal forebrain and medial prefrontal cortex reported that dreams were more vivid and increased in frequency, meaning multiple dreams within one REM cycle. It is concluded that dreams have a specificity regarding which part of the brain is affected by lesions ( Nir, Y., Tononi, G., 2010).  Sleep Paralysis Sleep paralysis can be caused by several variables: trauma, genetics, stress, physical illnesses, and disorders (either neurological or specifically sleep related) ( Denis, D., French, C.C., Gregory, A.M., 2018 ) . It is when the body maintains all muscle paralysis that occurs during REM sleep while the person is still fully conscious. This is due to the body having an increased “sympathetic tone,” which causes a disconnect between perception and motor control ( Farooq, M., Anjum, F., 2023 ) . Sympathetic tone is the body’s ability to react in a fight or flight mode, the engagement of the sympathetic nervous system in the body. Females tend to have a higher level of sleep paralysis occurrence than men, although no scientific explanation has been discovered yet for  this discrepancy. During sleep paralysis, people tend to wake up with feelings of dread and intense fear, sometimes before they have realized they are incapable of moving their body. This is due to the body being in the “hypervigilant state” during REM sleep which instantly triggers the brain to feel fear ( Farooq, M., Anjum, F., 2023 ). Additionally, those who experience sleep paralysis feel a weight on their chest resembling the inability to take deep breaths. Through several experiments, various researchers believe that when breathing becomes irregular during REM sleep, there is a reduction in tidal volume and how much air is let into the alveoli within lungs ( Farooq, M., Anjum, F., 2023 ) .  Sleep paralysis is a common symptom for narcolepsy, which is a neurological disorder that limits the brain’s ability to manage sleep-wake cycles. Narcolepsy is associated with loss of body muscle, extreme weight loss, and feeling exhausted during the daytime ( Denis, D., French, C.C., Gregory, A.M., 2018 ) . Unfortunately, there is no cure or tactic to prevent sleep paralysis for the entirety of someone’s life. Some factors may increase the likelihood, however it can still occur for anyone. Once in a sleep paralysis stage, someone must wait for the episode to finish on its own and focus on grounding your body such as consistent breathing and paying attention to items that are certainly in your reality. What can affect REM sleep? Melatonin Melatonin is a hormone produced within the body primarily from the pineal gland, though production can also occur from secondary organs. It is converted from serotonin through a two step process that starts with the activation of norepinephrine binding to adrenergic beta-1 receptors  ( Claustrat, B., Brun, J., Chazot, G., 2005 ) . Melatonin secretion is not directly associated with stages and peaks in REM sleep, but rather through an endogenous clock within the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN) in the hypothalamus. The SCN controls other bodily processes–essentially all circadian rhythms–like sleep-wake cycles, temperature changes, and levels of cortisol ( Claustrat, B., Brun, J., Chazot, G., 2005 ) . In other words, melatonin secretion occurs in the dark stage of a light-dark cycle. Instead of something “activating” secretion during the dark, the retino-hypothalamic fibers in the retina sense the presence of light and send an output to the hypothalamus which will “inhibit” secretion during the light stages. However, most people in modern society do not have constant patterns of melatonin secretion due to stress, use of drugs, late-night work shifts, or even aging. When artificial light from light bulbs are present, melatonin levels can still be reduced by a certain amount even during night hours, such as airport lights during an overnight flight or staring at a phone screen when trying to fall asleep- specifically the blue light ( Claustrat, B., Brun, J., Chazot, G., 2005 , Alghamdi, B.S., 2018 ) .  Changes in the sleep-wake cycle controlled by the SCN can cause low melatonin production, resulting in sleeping difficulties. Irregular sleeping patterns then disrupt the homeostatic balance of sleep levels in the body. For example, if someone’s routine doom scrolling causes lower levels of melatonin during the night, they would still feel the need to nap during the day: the body needs to adequately rest, regardless of the level of melatonin at that point in the day ( Hardeland, R., 2012 ) . Sleeping issues are often associated with depressive disorders as well. Lack of a consistent sleep schedule can be a predictor of a group of disorders like insomnia ( Hardeland, R., 2012 ) . Melatonin can affect the body in ways not involving sleep. In a study written by Alghamdi, rats were observed to test reactions to ischemic strokes, or when there is some obstruction or blockage in the cerebral arteries that affect blood circulation and therefore limit the work done by that area of the brain. It was concluded that rats that received a pineal gland transplant, and therefore had an increased production of melatonin,had a huge improvement in motor ability and a shorter recovery time, as well as smaller obstructions in the artery ( Alghamdi, B.S., 2018 ) . That being said, more research should be conducted on the long-term effects of consuming supplemental melatonin for longer than 4-5 months and how this heavy consumption impacts REM sleep. What Does Science Say for Dream Interpretation? Researchers debate whether dreams are a “top-down” or “bottom-up” process in the brain. In other words, do dreams form from low-sensory areas in the brain such as abstract thought and then form high-level organized thinking? Or do they form piece together distinct memories stores in long-term memory with strong sensory and perceptual cues? Different scientists have suggested different findings , as dream experiments are mainly done through verbal reports from participants (Nir, Y., Tononi, G., 2010). Some support the idea that ponto-geniculo-occipital (PGO) waves generated in the brainstem during REM sleep can trigger the visual cortex. The output is later synthesized to a higher-processing level in the brain resulting in a dream. Others, such as Sigmund Freud, believe that dreams originate from psychological underlying motives in the brain that interact with sensory perception and form a dream ( Nir, Y., Tononi, G., 2010 ) . While dreaming, the brain can create illusions and figures that are not present in their everyday reality. The ability to mentally create new imagery can explain some neural mechanisms that form dreams ( Desseilles, M., Thanh Dang-Vu, T., Sterpenich, V., Schwartz, S., 2011 ) .  Resources Alghamdi, B.S. (2018). The neuroprotective role of melatonin in neurological disorders. Journal of Neuroscience Research , 96(7); 1136-1149. https://doi.org/10.1002/jnr.24220   Claustrat, B., Brun, J., Chazot, G. (2005). The basic physiology and pathology of melatonin. Sleep Medicine Reviews , 9(1); 11-24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smrv.2004.08.001 Cleveland Clinic. (2023). Sleep. https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/body/12148-sleep-basics   Denis, D., French, C.C., Gregory, A.M. (2018). A systematic review of variables associated with sleep paralysis.  Sleep Medicine Reviews , 38; 141-157. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smrv.2017.05.005 Desseilles, M., Thanh Dang-Vu, T., Sterpenich, V., Schwartz, S. (2011). Cognitive and emotional processes during dreaming: A neuroimaging view.  Consciousness and Cognition , 20(4), 998-1008. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.concog.2010.10.005 .  Farooq, M., Anjum, F. (2023). Sleep Paralysis.  StatPearls Publishing (Internet) . https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK562322/   Hardeland, R. (2012). Neurobiology, Pathophysiology, and Treatment of Melatonin Deficiency and Dysfunction. The Scientific World Journal . https://doi.org/10.1100%2F2012%2F640389   Nir, Y., Tononi, G. (2010). Dreaming and the brain: from phenomenology to neurophysiology. Trends in Cognitive Science . 14(2):88-100.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2009.12.001   Silber M.H. (2023). Who discovered REM sleep? Sleep , 47(1). https://doi.org/10.1093/sleep/zsad232   Steck, A., Steck, B. (2016). Dreams and the Dreaming Brain.  Brain and Mind , 219-240. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-21287-6_15

Haleema Warraiat Without a second thought, most people associate “fun,” with children along with their playful screams and seemingly never-ending energy. While kids certainly get their fair share of recreation, it does not overtake the sizable amount of fun that adults are capable of. Science proves that adults have fun on account of their life experience, intelligence, and social ability. Getting older does not limit creativity but instead intensifies it. Emerging adulthood defines children as they transition away from their adolescence and into their adulthood. Most would envision that once a child becomes an adult, they lose their taste for fun. This is undoubtedly false. While children and adults both can tell tales and make-believe, adults have the advantage of life experience and the knowledge that comes along with it. Children rely solely on what little of the world they have explored which limits their imagination. Creativity makes its mark during adulthood as tasks like playing with toys, enjoying music, and reading books help build cognitive skills. Santrock (2022), says about 80% of individuals’ most significant creative contributions will be completed by age 50. It is a common mistake to think that the youngest of humanity holds more capacity for fun. An oversold theme in movies such as Charlie and the Chocolate Factory and Peter Pan, is that staying young is the only way to keep the human mind sharp and excited. It would be deceitful to say reaching adulthood is a dull misery. Some adults express their creativity by cooking beautiful meals or by wearing intricate outfits. Some are more whimsical and engage in stereotypical children’s activities like collecting and playing with toys. Many adults are deemed weird, childish, and even obsessive for owning large collections of toys. They are defined as such for the instinctual desire to consume different creative forms. Collecting toys is a skill many take and can include spending hours online and in stores searching for their favorite dolls, trading cards, or figurines. Maturity gives people sustained attention to appreciate high-quality craftsmanship, visionary design, and nostalgic symbols. Expertise can show up in middle-aged or older adults as having extensive, high-quality knowledge on domains of interest.  Theodore P. Zanto, Adam Gazzaley (2019), say adults reported higher motivation and less mind wandering compared to younger adults during sustained attention tasks. This verifies that creativity is shown at higher levels in adults which makes toy collecting natural. Hello Kitty, an incredibly popular character, was created by Sanrio, a Japanese merchandising company, in 1974. The cat was created for girls twelve and under but was commercially successful with teenagers and adults around the world. Many people do not understand the love around this white cat with its signature red bow as some deem it basic. Yet, its simplicity plays a major role in its success. The design itself is incredibly straightforward. The character lacks a mouth because the creator, as stated by Yuko Shimizu to Time Magazine in 2008, could not find a way to express it cutely. Hello Kitty has lived many lives and has been used in marketing campaigns from makeup palettes to theme parks to food storage containers. Her reach is endless because her effortless design allows her to transform into anything. When asked why Kitty does not have a mouth, Shimizu explained, “ It's so that people who look at her can project their own feelings onto her face, because she has an expressionless face. Kitty looks happy when people are happy. She looks sad when they are sad. For this psychological reason, we thought she shouldn't be tied to any emotion — and that's why she doesn't have a mouth.” “People adore her because kawaii characters, according to Chen (2023), make people feel instantly happier by releasing dopamine into the body to combat stress hormones. The belief that human beings aim to be social and desire to affiliate with other people is Erikson’s theory. Following a creative path can lead people to others like themselves. Feeling accepted and engaged keeps people from leaving their passions behind. Normative age-graded influences are present in everyday situations. For example, two children in the same third-grade art class might not think they have anything in common besides their age, but they could soon discover their shared appreciation for glitter glue. Additionally, the same can be said for middle-aged adults who routinely shop for handbags together. Pezirkianidis et al., (2023), say adult friendships are associated with developed social lives as well as more positive relationships. Sharing interests and having a community gives people resources to deal with loneliness. Socioemotional selectivity theory suggests older adults are more selective in their relationships and activities to maintain social and emotional well-being. Being particular about which social circles a person has a presence in can have a major impact on quality of life. In essence, being creative and being social, typically go hand in hand. Research suggests that adults, despite their challenges, are superior in their potential to have fun. By incorporating their unique experiences, bright minds, and friendly personalities into their way of living, the limit to what brains can dream up is boundless. The human brain evolves through human life and certainly does not have its peak during childhood. References Chen, C. (2023, January 18). Cuteness Overload: The neurology and psychology behind ‘Cute Things.’ The Science Survey. https://thesciencesurvey.com/editorial/2023/01/18/cuteness-overload-the-neurology-and-psychology-behind-cute-things/#:~:text=No%2C%20you're%20not%20the,and%20you%20instantly%20feel%20happier . Pezirkianidis, C., Galanaki, E., Raftopoulou, G., Μoraitou, D., & Stalikas, A. (2023). Adult friendship and wellbeing: A systematic review with practical implications. Frontiers in Psychology, 14. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1059057 Santrock , J. W. (2022). A topical approach to life-span development. McGraw Hill Education. https://www.mheducation.com/highered/product/topical-approach-lifespan- development-santrock/M9781260726817.html Zanto, T. P., & Gazzaley, A. (2019). Sustained attention. Sustained Attention - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/psychology/sustained-attention#:~:text=In%20addition%20to%20age%2C%20motivation,et%20al.%2C%202014 ).

By: Noah Morales Introduction: During my time in my developmental psychology class, we hit on an interesting topic of how adverse childhood experiences affect the development of people in the world. While this fact intuitively felt true, it got me thinking of the real effects that adversity could have on someone growing up. I looked at a few different factors. To start, I was curious about the likelihood of developmental disorders occurring and the correlation between that and adverse conditions. I also looked at pediatric health outcomes and their associations with childhood adversity.  Pediatric Health Outcomes Associated with Childhood Adversity Early detection and intervention of childhood adversity has a powerful potential to improve the health and well-being of children. Studies indicated that exposure to childhood adversity was associated with delays in cognitive development, asthma, infection, somatic complaints, sleep disruption, and many other potential disorders. Household dysfunction reported an effect on weight during early childhood and eventually developed into an effect on weight during adolescence. Exposure to childhood adversity was associated with alterations of immune and inflammatory response and stress-related accelerated telomere erosion.  Things such as abuse, neglect, financial insecurities, and household dysfunction all have an affect on a child’s mind. Furthermore, neurological disorders take place with childhood adversity, which add to overall problems and continue the cycle a child may have.  Childhood Predictors of Adult Functional Outcomes in ADHD Results from the Multimodal Treatment Study of ADHD have shown impairment in functional domains within adults that were diagnosed with ADHD as children.  In a study by Hetchmen et al. (2016),they looked to determine the effects of childhood demographic, clinical, and family factors on adult functional outcomes within people from the treatment study cohort, whether or not they were diagnosed with ADHD as a child. The results of this study showed that predictors of adult functional outcomes in ADHD included clinical factors like the severity of ADHD, IQ, and comorbidity, as well as demographic factors like household income, parental monitoring, and parental marital problems were comparable for children with or without ADHD. This meant that both ADHD symptoms and adverse conditions were important predictors of adult functional outcomes. By assisting children with lower IQs or those who come from households with low incomes, adult functioning could be improved the same way treatment for ADHD symptoms were as well. Early Childhood Household Instability and Young Adulthood Depression Unstable and unpredictable environments are linked to risk for psychopathology, but there are unclear links between neural mechanisms that explain how instability relates to mental health. In a 21 year longitudinal study conducted by Hardi et al (2023.), MRI scans of those who developed under adverse conditions were analyzed. These MRI scans were processed to determine the structural connectivity of different regions of the brain. These scans were then processed as weighted, undirected, and unthresholded in order to generate three weighted global metrics of network architecture, being global efficiency, transitivity, and modularity.  It was found that greater instability during early childhood was related to greater global efficiency in structural networks, but was not related to clustering or modularity. The association between early instability and global efficiency remained after controlling for harsh parenting, neglect and insecurity. This, in turn, is predicted to have greater depressive symptoms in young adulthood.  Furthermore, this structural network efficiency indirectly explains the association between depression and instability. Exploratory findings showed that associations with structural connectivity were the strongest within the left frontolateral subregion and between temporal and other subregions were associated with greater instability. Overall, the results showed that instability during childhood was related to a greater structural network efficiency, particularly in areas that are important for regulation and cognition, which has consequences for mental health later in life.  Conclusion: Childhood adversity affects brain development and multiple body systems, with the physiological manifestations being detectable in childhood. A history of childhood adversity should be considered during the diagnosis of developmental delay, asthma, recurrent infections that require hospitalizations, somatic complaints, and sleep disruption. The variability that these adverse conditions cause and how children respond to them developmentally is critical to how a child may function. These factors are usually things that are hard to change, so the more insightful a person might be on how people function, the better. References: Hardi, Felicia A., et al. “Early childhood household instability, adolescent structural neural network architecture, and young adulthood depression: A 21-year Longitudinal Study.” Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience , vol. 61, June 2023, p. 101253, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dcn.2023.101253 .  Hechtman, Lily, and Arunima Roy. “41.1 adult functional outcomes and their predictors in individuals with childhood attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: Results from the long-term follow-up of the multimodal treatment study of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (MTA).” Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry , vol. 55, no. 10, Oct. 2016, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2016.07.360 .  Oh, Debora Lee, et al. “Systematic review of pediatric health outcomes associated with childhood adversity.” BMC Pediatrics , vol. 18, no. 1, 23 Feb. 2018, https://doi.org/10.1186/s12887-018-1037-7 .

Written by: Elizabeth Aliyeva; Edited by: Hannah Kim. Imagine a young child who, at the age of four, begins taking piano lessons. Over the next few years, she not only develops a passion for music but also shows remarkable improvements in her cognitive abilities. Her memory becomes sharper, her ability to focus enhances, and she exhibits greater spatial-temporal reasoning skills. Research suggests that this isn't just a coincidence. Engaging in musical training at a young age can profoundly impact brain development, shaping cognitive functions and emotional resilience in ways that extend beyond the realm of music itself.  Music has long been a universal language, transcending cultures and epochs to connect people through its rhythms and melodies. But its impact extends far beyond personal enjoyment; it plays a crucial role in shaping cognitive and emotional development, particularly during formative years. Research has consistently shown that engaging with music—from learning an instrument to simply listening—can lead to significant changes in brain structure and function. During early childhood, the brain is highly plastic, meaning it is particularly receptive to new experiences and learning opportunities. Studies have demonstrated that musical training can enhance various cognitive skills such as memory, attention, and spatial reasoning in such children. For instance, children who participate in music education often show improved verbal memory and  greater mathematical abilities compared to their peers. Moreover, music can foster emotional regulation and social skills, contributing to one’s well-rounded development. Music and Memory Miendlarzewska & Trost (2014) conducted a fascinating study on how musical training in childhood has been shown to enhance cognitive functions and induce neuroplastic changes in brain structure and function. The benefits are most enhanced when musical training occurs during sensitive developmental periods, but music-induced brain plasticity also occurs later in life. Key factors affecting the relative value of musical education compared to other types of training include motivation, affect, and social communication.  Musical training positively impacts various domains beyond music performance, including verbal abilities, second-language learning, non-verbal reasoning, and general intelligence. Early childhood is a critical period for musical training, with the most significant benefits observed when training begins before age seven, although auditory benefits can start as early as age two. The role of motivation and the reward system in learning is notable but underrepresented in the literature. Rhythmic entrainment is proposed as a major mechanism underlying the cognitive benefits of musical training, improving attentional processes and temporal information processing, which are linked to reading and attentional focus. One thing to note is that performance anxiety and stress, often associated with music education, can impact learning. Moderate stress may enhance learning, while high stress may inhibit it. Future studies should consider individual differences in motivation and stress levels. Musical training fosters both near-transfer skills (e.g., fine motor skills and listening) and far-transfer skills (e.g., executive functions and linguistic abilities). Social aspects of musical education, such as group performance, enhance communication and empathy. This ends up contributing to one’s overall well-being and cognitive development.  Music and Focus  Kiss & Linell (2020) investigated the impact of background music on task performance and attentional states during a simple sustained-attention task, using subjective reports to explore this effect. The findings revealed that background music significantly increased task-focus and decreased mind-wandering compared to silence. Task-focus was associated with shorter reaction times (RTs), but the overall RT and variability were not significantly affected by the presence of music. This suggests that while music improved attentional focus, it did not alter the overall speed of performance. The results support the arousal framework, indicating that background music enhances arousal to an optimal level, which is beneficial for performance on simple tasks. However, the study found no significant effects of music tempo, lyrics, or genre on RT or attentional states, possibly due to participants selecting music that balanced their arousal levels. The study’s findings are consistent with previous research showing that background music can boost arousal and improve attention on low-demand tasks, but does not impact how quickly fatigue sets in.  Music and Spatial-Temporal Reasoning  Jenkins’ famous (2001) study discusses the mixed findings regarding the "Mozart effect," where listening to Mozart's music has been reported to enhance spatial-temporal reasoning performance for a short duration (about 12 minutes). This effect is small, varies among individuals, and does not impact general intelligence. Jenkins (2001) also explored whether the "Mozart effect" is specifically attributable to Mozart's compositions or if they extend to other types of music. Initial studies focused on Mozart's double piano sonata K448 and piano concerto no. 23 in A major K488, which were found to enhance spatial-temporal performance and reduce epileptiform activity in EEG recordings. In contrast, minimalist music by Philip Glass and old-time pop music did not produce these effects. However, music by Yanni, which shares similar tempo, structure, melody, and harmony to Mozart's sonata, also showed positive effects. Further analysis by Hughes and Fino revealed that a high degree of long-term periodicity (especially in the 10-60 second range) is a common feature of Mozart’s music and that of other musicians like J.C. Bach and J.S. Bach This characteristic may be key to the observed effects. These findings suggest that it is the specific structural features of music, such as long-term periodicity, rather than the composer alone, that influence cognitive performance and seizure activity.  The collected research provides compelling evidence that music, particularly Mozart's compositions, can positively influence cognitive performance and brain development. Musical training, especially when started in early childhood, enhances various cognitive functions, including verbal abilities, non-verbal reasoning, and general intelligence, by inducing neuroplastic changes in the brain. Similarly, listening to music, including (but not limited to) Mozart's, has been associated with improvements in spatial-temporal reasoning and benefits for individuals with epilepsy, although these effects are modest and vary by individual and task. Background music, particularly familiar or preferred music, can enhance task focus and reduce mind-wandering in simple tasks, suggesting that music can optimize arousal levels to improve performance. However, an important disclaimer is that the effects of music are not universal, as they are influenced by factors such as the type of task, individual differences, and the characteristics of the music itself. While the specific musical elements that contribute to these cognitive and neurological benefits are not yet fully understood, it is clear that both active engagement with music and passive listening can have a range of positive effects on brain function. Future research should aim to better understand the underlying mechanisms, the role of different musical characteristics, and the potential long-term benefits of musical engagement for cognitive and neurological health. References Jenkins, J. S. (2001). The Mozart effect. Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine , 94 (4), 170–172. https://doi.org/10.1177/014107680109400404 Kiss, L., & Linnell, K. J. (2020). The effect of preferred background music on task-focus in sustained attention. Psychological Research , 85 (6). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00426-020-01400-6 Miendlarzewska, E. A., & Trost, W. J. (2014). How musical training affects cognitive development: rhythm, reward and other modulating variables. Frontiers in Neuroscience , 7 (279). https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2013.00279

By: Catherine Gooch Background Spinal cord injury (SCI) is a neurological condition caused by damage to the spinal cord, the long column of nervous tissue running from the low back up to the brainstem. SCI prevents motor signals that originate in the brain from reaching muscles below the injury. This leads to permanent paralysis based on the location of the injury. Injuries in the thoracic or lumbar spine can cause paralysis of the legs, known as paraplegia, while injuries in the cervical spine can cause paralysis of both the arms and legs, known as tetraplegia. The extent of the loss in muscle function also depends on the severity of the injury, so less severe injuries that leave some of the nerves intact may not cause complete paralysis. But even incomplete injuries do still impair muscle function to some extent. Because motor function is essential for maintaining independence and quality of life, many researchers are exploring ways to promote the recovery of motor function after SCI. While there are a variety of perspectives from which to approach this problem, such as pharmacological interventions or exercise therapy (Dietz 2021), this article will focus on an exciting avenue of research that uses electrical stimulation to promote functional recovery in people with SCI.   Action Potentials The brain communicates with the body via electrical signals called action potentials. This allows electrical stimulation to have an effect on muscle activity.  Motor signals originate in an area of the brain called the motor cortex. When neurons in this area receive a stimulus, ions such as sodium and potassium begin to rapidly flow in and out of the cell. Ions are charged particles, and their flow represents a change in the electrical potential of the neuron. During this process, the membrane potential, or the difference in electrical potential on both sides of the cell membrane, quickly depolarizes, meaning it becomes less negative. It then repolarizes once potassium flows back into the cell, and returns to its resting membrane potential of around -70 mV. This whole process of the membrane potential rapidly depolarizing and then repolarizing constitutes an action potential. Action potentials travel along the length of the neuron, called the axon, and reach the point where the end of one neuron is just a small distance away from the beginning of another. This small space between neurons is called the synaptic cleft. Once an action potential reaches the end of a neuron, the neuron will release certain chemicals called neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft. These neurotransmitters cause the next neuron to experience an action potential just as the one before did. This process of action potentials essentially traveling from one neuron to another is how the nervous system uses electricity to send signals throughout the body.   Motor Pathways Once an action potential begins in the motor cortex, it needs to reach the muscles. To do this, it travels along the corticospinal pathway. This pathway takes the action potential from the motor cortex, through the brain, and then through the spinal cord. Different regions of the spinal cord control different muscles, with the cervical spine controlling the arms and hands while the lumbar spine controls the leg muscles. After reaching the appropriate spinal level, the action potential synapses with a motor neuron, sending the signal directly to the muscle and causing it to contract. Since motor signals travel through the spinal cord, damage to the spinal cord will impair the ability for these signals to reach areas below the level of injury. As such, someone with a spinal cord injury in their lumbar or thoracic spine will still be able to use their arms and hands, but will be paralyzed below the waist, while someone who injures their cervical spine will lose function in all four limbs. Approximate map depicting a variety of upper-limb muscles and the vertebral levels at which their motor neurons originate. Based on data from McIntyre et al., 2002. Spinal cord stimulation Because muscle activity is caused by electrical impulses, scientists have been able to use various types of electrical stimulation to induce motor responses, with significant clinical implications. One type of stimulation is transcutaneous spinal stimulation, or TSS. With TSS, small electrodes are placed over the skin at specific levels of the spinal cord. When the stimulation is turned on, the electricity initiates action potentials at the spinal level where the electrodes were placed. These action potentials are then conducted along motor neurons and then initiate muscle contraction. In addition to being placed over the skin, electrodes can also be surgically implanted into the epidural space within the spinal column. This form of stimulation is known as epidural spinal stimulation, or ESS. Placing the electrodes directly adjacent to the spinal cord, rather than over the skin itself, allows stimulation to be more precise. One benefit of ESS compared to TSS is that the stimulation can be more specific. This is because epidural electrode paddles contain many very small electrodes which can be individually turned on or off. And since the paddles are implanted right next to the spinal cord, researchers can use lower intensities of stimulation compared to TSS because the signals don’t have to pass through the skin to reach their destination. But since ESS requires surgery, it is considerably less easily accessible and carries more risk than TSS, which is completely non-invasive. Effects of stimulation on people with SCI Although some implantable spinal cord stimulators are FDA-approved for pain management, the use of spinal cord stimulation for motor recovery in people with SCI is still experimental. Recent studies have found promising results, though. One such study involved a 23-year old man who had lost all of his motor function in the trunk and legs after being hit by a car (Harkema et al., 2011). More than two years of physical therapy focused on walking led to no improvements, so he opted to have an electrode array implanted in his lumbar spine. After recovering from the surgery, he underwent experimental sessions where he received electrical stimulation while trainers manually helped him move his legs in a walking pattern on a treadmill, and while he practiced standing with support from hand rails. After 80 sessions, he was able to stand for more than four minutes with just ESS and no other assistance. Although he was not able to fully walk, ESS did allow the subject to move his legs in a stepping-like pattern, which was a huge improvement. Similarly promising results have also been found using non-invasive TSS to elicit movement in the lower limbs. One study that investigated this recruited fifteen individuals with SCI and assigned them to either a real TSS group or a sham TSS group (Sayenko et al., 2019). The sham TSS mimicked the experience of real TSS, but didn’t actually elicit any motor responses in participants’ legs. In this way, it functioned as a placebo. During the initial session, all fifteen participants practiced standing with and without continuous stimulation. Six participants then returned for twelve more sessions of stand training, three times per week over the course of four weeks. Each session lasted for two hours and involved two exercises, performed both with and without continuous TSS. In the “Circle” exercise, participants stood on a force plate and shifted their bodyweight while trying to follow a circular pattern displayed on a screen in front of them. In the “Basketball” exercise, the screen showed targets and baskets, and the participants shifted their bodyweight left and right to make the targets land in the baskets. Participants were told to try to maximize their score in these games, giving them motivation to try their best during the experimental sessions. In addition to training for the participants, these exercises also gave the researchers data about participants’ center of pressure. The study found that without TSS, the participants required assistance in order to stand upright; but when TSS was applied, the level of assistance needed to maintain upright posture decreased significantly. No such result was found in the sham TSS group. This, combined with higher muscle recordings in the leg muscles during stimulation, indicates that non-invasive TSS was able to activate the neurons below the injury and cause the muscle contractions needed to support participants’ bodyweight during upright standing. The intensity of stimulation required to reach motor threshold and make upright standing easier also decreased throughout the duration of the study. This could indicate that damaged connections between neurons near the injury were being reconfigured via Hebbian neuroplasticity. This is the hypothesis that ‘neurons that fire together wire together’ (other research on SCI recovery has found support for this idea, see Jo et al., 2023). Interestingly, the study by Sayenko et al. found motor-function improvements in all participants after their sessions, including those in the sham group. This is an important finding because it shows that there is some capability for functional improvements after task-specific training, even without electrical stimulation. The improvements were, however, much stronger in the real TSS group. This indicates that neuromodulation is crucial for facilitating these improvements and maximizing people’s ability to recover function after SCI. In addition to the research on lower-limb recovery, there has also been investigation on the effects of electrical spinal stimulation on upper-limbs. One such study involved two people with cervical SCI who had an epidural electrode array implanted in their cervical spine (Lu et al., 2016). Both subjects had severe injuries, with very little motor function in their upper limbs and no motor function at all in their lower limbs. The researchers measured the amount of force the participants of the study produced in their hand muscles before, during, and after continuous stimulation, and did this both while they were at rest and while they were trying to squeeze their fist. They did this repeatedly for eight weeks after the implant. The researchers found that the participants’ force generation in their hands gradually increased over the course of the stimulation sessions. By the end of the study, both participants’ muscle contractions without stimulation were even stronger than their initial contractions with stimulation. They also had more control over the timing of these muscle contractions, and the results appeared to last long-term. Interestingly, increases in muscle activity were mostly found when the participants were not only receiving stimulation, but when they were actively trying to grip. A similar study explored the effects of stimulation on upper-limb motor recovery, but used TSS instead of ESS (Inancini et al., 2021). This study had six participants with cervical SCI, and began with four weeks of training specific functional tasks, such as moving individual fingers or pinching small coins. The participants then underwent another four weeks of the same training, but while receiving cervical TSS. Participants then returned for monthly follow-up visits to assess whether any improvements in motor performance were retained. The results of this intervention were very impressive. One participant who had complete paralysis in his hands, which did not improve after the first four weeks of training, was able to move his fingers for the first time since his injury once he began receiving TSS. Other participants who had some ability to move their hands saw large improvements as well. While the training alone led to slight improvements in each measured task, training with stimulation led to larger functional improvements in every subject. Based on these results, the authors asserted that “Stimulation allowed the participants to engage more fully in the training exercises by permitting activation of previously weak or paralyzed muscles” (314), leading to functional improvements that remained for three to six months after the intervention ended. The fact that these results lasted for months after the participants stopped receiving any form of stimulation is important because it demonstrates that some degree of neuroplasticity is retained after SCI. Future directions The overall body of literature on this topic points toward a promising line of research that can hopefully lead to improvements in motor function and quality of life for people living with SCI. However, it is important to keep in mind that the outcomes of ESS and TSS, so far, have been quite modest. Participants in these studies have been able to regain certain functions such as standing and moving previously paralyzed limbs, but more complex movements and fine motor control are still beyond what spinal cord stimulation, even when combined with physical and occupational therapy, can recover. More comprehensive recovery will likely require neuromodulation in combination with other treatments, such as drug treatments. It is also important to keep in mind that every individual and every injury is different, and as such, treatments will need to be tailored specifically to the person receiving them. This presents a methodological challenge for researchers. There are many questions that will need to be better understood before spinal cord stimulation can become a widespread treatment option. For one, it is not yet entirely clear what neural mechanisms are responsible for the observed improvements in motor function after stimulation. There is also a large correlation between severity of the injury and recovery outcomes, which raises the question of to what extent people with more severe SCI are capable of recovering voluntary motor control (Seáñez and Capogrosso, 2021). It has also been well-established that neuromodulation works best in combination with training activities, but it is not entirely clear what specific activities should be used to maximize recovery. Similarly, it is not yet understood how best to incorporate spinal cord stimulation into clinical rehabilitation programs. How frequently should patients attend stimulation sessions? How long should these sessions last? The answers to these questions are not yet known. It is also not clear whether TSS or ESS should be used in combination with other types of neuromodulation such as peripheral nerve stimulation or transcranial magnetic stimulation; and if so, how should they be combined? These are questions that are actively being investigated by researchers all over the world. Hopefully in the coming decades, their work can create a more thorough understanding of how neuromodulation works to improve motor function and how to apply this knowledge in the clinical setting, and can be used to develop new and improved treatment options for people living with SCI.   Sources Sayenko, D. G., Rath, M., Ferguson, A. R., Burdick, J. W., Havton, L. A., Edgerton, V. R., & Gerasimenko, Y. P. (2019). Self-Assisted Standing Enabled by Non-Invasive Spinal Stimulation after Spinal Cord Injury. Journal of neurotrauma , 36 (9), 1435–1450.   https://doi.org/10.1089/neu.2018.5956   Lu DC, Edgerton VR, Modaber M, et al. Engaging Cervical Spinal Cord Networks to Reenable Volitional Control of Hand Function in Tetraplegic Patients. Neurorehabilitation and Neural Repair. 2016;30(10):951-962. doi:10.1177/1545968316644344   García-Alén, L., Kumru, H., Castillo-Escario, Y., Benito-Penalva, J., Medina-Casanovas, J., Gerasimenko, Y. P., Edgerton, V. R., García-Alías, G., & Vidal, J. (2023). Transcutaneous Cervical Spinal Cord Stimulation Combined with Robotic Exoskeleton Rehabilitation for the Upper Limbs in Subjects with Cervical SCI: Clinical Trial. Biomedicines , 11 (2), 589.   https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines11020589   Barss, T. S., Parhizi, B., & Mushahwar, V. K. (2020). Transcutaneous spinal cord stimulation of the cervical cord modulates lumbar networks. Journal of neurophysiology , 123 (1), 158–166.   https://doi.org/10.1152/jn.00433.2019   Gerasimenko, Y., Gorodnichev, R., Moshonkina, T., Sayenko, D., Gad, P., & Reggie Edgerton, V. (2015). Transcutaneous electrical spinal-cord stimulation in humans. Annals of physical and rehabilitation medicine , 58 (4), 225–231.   https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rehab.2015.05.003   F. Inanici, L. N. Brighton, S. Samejima, C. P. Hofstetter and C. T. Moritz, "Transcutaneous Spinal Cord Stimulation Restores Hand and Arm Function After Spinal Cord Injury," in IEEE Transactions on Neural Systems and Rehabilitation Engineering, vol. 29, pp. 310-319, 2021, doi: 10.1109/TNSRE.2021.3049133   Harkema, S., Gerasimenko, Y., Hodes, J., Burdick, J., Angeli, C., Chen, Y., Ferreira, C., Willhite, A., Rejc, E., Grossman, R. G., & Edgerton, V. R. (2011). Effect of epidural stimulation of the lumbosacral spinal cord on voluntary movement, standing, and assisted stepping after motor complete paraplegia: a case study. Lancet (London, England) , 377 (9781), 1938–1947.   https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(11)60547-3 Keller, A., Singh, G., Sommerfeld, J.H. et al.  Noninvasive spinal stimulation safely enables upright posture in children with spinal cord injury. Nat Commun   12 , 5850 (2021).   https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-021-26026-z   Seáñez, I., Capogrosso, M. Motor improvements enabled by spinal cord stimulation combined with physical training after spinal cord injury: review of experimental evidence in animals and humans. Bioelectron Med   7 , 16 (2021).   https://doi.org/10.1186/s42234-021-00077-5   Seáñez, I., Capogrosso, M., Minassian, K., Wagner, F.B. (2022). Spinal Cord Stimulation to Enable Leg Motor Control and Walking in People with Spinal Cord Injury. In: Reinkensmeyer, D.J., Marchal-Crespo, L., Dietz, V. (eds) Neurorehabilitation Technology. Springer, Cham.   https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-08995-4_18   Rejc, E., Angeli, C. A., Atkinson, D., & Harkema, S. J. (2017). Motor recovery after activity-based training with spinal cord epidural stimulation in a chronic motor complete paraplegic. Scientific reports , 7 (1), 13476.   https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-14003-w   Dietz V. (2021). Restoration of motor function after CNS damage: is there a potential beyond spontaneous recovery?. Brain communications , 3 (3), fcab171.   https://doi.org/10.1093/braincomms/fcab171   García-Alén, L., Ros-Alsina, A., Sistach-Bosch, L., Wright, M., & Kumru, H. (2024). Noninvasive Electromagnetic Neuromodulation of the Central and Peripheral Nervous System for Upper-Limb Motor Strength and Functionality in Individuals with Cervical Spinal Cord Injury: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Sensors (Basel, Switzerland) , 24 (14), 4695.   https://doi.org/10.3390/s24144695   Greiner, N., Barra, B., Schiavone, G. et al.  Recruitment of upper-limb motoneurons with epidural electrical stimulation of the cervical spinal cord. Nat Commun   12 , 435 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-20703-1   Jo, H. J., Kizziar, E., Sangari, S., Chen, D., Kessler, A., Kim, K., Anschel, A., Heinemann, A. W., Mensh, B. D., Awadalla, S., Lieber, R. L., Oudega, M., & Perez, M. A. (2023). Multisite Hebbian Plasticity Restores Function in Humans with Spinal Cord Injury. Annals of neurology , 93 (6), 1198–1213.   https://doi.org/10.1002/ana.26622 Lin, A., Shaaya, E., Calvert, J. S., Parker, S. R., Borton, D. A., & Fridley, J. S. (2022). A Review of Functional Restoration From Spinal Cord Stimulation in Patients With Spinal Cord Injury. Neurospine , 19 (3), 703–734.   https://doi.org/10.14245/ns.2244652.326

Written by Bethel Jegol Edited by Hannah K Created with BioRender.com From the moment any Ethiopian child was able to form memories, long-distance running has been the main topic in any Habesha and East African household. From Eliud Kipchoge, Kenenisa Bekele, and the Dibaba sisters to someone who is considered the greatest of all time–Halie Gebrselassie–East Africans have dominated the long-distance field for ages, and it doesn’t seem like they’re stopping anytime soon. Despite the fact that any East African kid at one point in time believed they would surpass the crazy superhero endurance skills Gebrselassie possessed, all of them wondered one thing and one thing only–why did they always win? Maybe it was the pride they held or maybe it was the serious pep talks they had before their races. Or maybe it was in their blood. Looking at this from a scientific perspective, wondering if this correlation of East Africans and dominance in long-distance running is possibly due to genetics is something to explore.  Background Information So how advanced are these East African runners? According to Genetic differentiation in East African ethnicities and its relationship with endurance running success , “...as of January 2021, of the 100 athletes from each sex holding the best marathon times in history, 76 women and 93 men were born in East Africa” (Zani et al., 2022). The majority of these athletes come from the Kalenjin ethnicity from Kenya and the Oromo from Ethiopia. Starting from the 1950s when these runners emerged, they have held world records and continuously beat those records as well, especially the 26.2 marathon. The top ten men's times for this race only include Kenyan and Ethiopian runners, with Kevin Kiptum at a time of two hours and thirty-five seconds and the top ten women’s times include all Kenyan or Ethiopian-born women, excluding Paula Radcliffe from Great Britain. Researchers, as well as the world, wonder how and why these runners came to be. Exploring the biological coding of these individuals is one way to start to speculate on these fascinations. East African Record Holders vs Genetic Makeup Multiple factors have been considered when exploring the genetic differentiation between East African long-distance runners and other runners. According to Genetic Aspects of Athletic Performance: the African Runners Phenomenon , two candidate genes were looked at to explain the success of African runners, the angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) gene, and alpha-actinin-3 (ACTN3) gene. They found that “with regard to the ACE gene, a polymorphism of insertion (I) is associated with lower levels of ACE than with deletion (D)” and that “in general, the I-allele from this gene has been associated with performance during aerobic endurance tests, and the trainability of cardiorespiratory fitness, reflected by maximal oxygen uptake, determined by the ASSL1 gene and 21 SNPs” (Vancini et al., 2014). Concurrently, “the D-allele has been associated with performance during power tests” (Vancini et al., 2014). According to their findings, however, there was no significant difference in the I and D-alleles between East African runners and the general population. Looking at the ACTN3 gene, it is often associated with the “highest level of physical performance and has been found with different frequencies in different populations” (Vancini et al., 2014). Though again, “there was no evidence of a possible association between the R577X polymorphism and performance in aerobic endurance tests by East African runners, thus suggesting that the ACTN3 deficiency is not a determinant for the sporting success observed among African runners” (Vancini et al., 2014).  Looking at East African running dominance: what is behind it?, they had different findings. With particular regard to Kenyan runners, Saltin et al reported elevated 3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase but not citrate synthase activity, differences that Weston et al suggest may be a result of the confounding effect of altitude exposure (Hamilton, 2000). In addition, “Weston et al found African runners to have a lower percentage of type I muscle fibre, the fibre type that is typically associated with endurance performance” (Hamilton, 2000). However, in the Y chromosome haplogroups of elite Ethiopian endurance runners , they explored the Y chromosome haplogroups in the Arsi group in Ethiopia. They found that “there were significant differences in Y chromosome haplogroup distribution between the general Ethiopian controls and the 5–10K and combined endurance runners, and between the Arsi controls and the 5–10K, the marathon and the endurance runners as a whole” (Moran et al., 2004). This suggests that while the Y chromosome haplogroups are associated with athletic status, they would need to test the Kenyan long-distance runners to see if there is an exclusive biological influence on long-distance running.  Other Factors that Play into this Dominance Since this topic is highly debated, exploring other factors besides genetic disposition had to happen. Arinze Esomnofu looked to consider factors like the fact that “an average Kenyan’s leg is 400 grams lighter than those of their European competitors, which translates to an energy saving of 8% when running” (Ramsammy, 2022) … and the fact that East African diets consist of lots of carbohydrates and very little fat, which is great for long-distance running. Also, living in conditions with high altitudes and just an overall psychological advantage with being the top competitors, as well as a plethora of other components, is something to consider.  In conclusion, it seems as if genetic factors do not specifically and only contribute to East African success in long-distance running. However, it could be a contributing factor along with all other factors combined. Because there are so few experiments and studies made to explore this fascinating phenomenon, completely ruling out the fact that genetics can play a factor in East Africa's dominance in long-distance running would be misguided. Notwithstanding all of this, certainly, Ethiopians will always exclaim, "It's in our blood!" for ages and centuries to come.  Works Cited Douglas, S. (2024, March 3). These are the world’s fastest marathoners. Runner’s World. https://www.runnersworld.com/races-places/a20823734/these-are-the-worlds-fastest-marathoners-and-marathon-courses/   Hamilton, B. (2000). East African running dominance: what is behind it? British Journal of Sports Medicine, 34(5), 391–394. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsm.34.5.391   Moran, C. N., Scott, R. A., Adams, S. M., Warrington, S. J., Jobling, M. A., Wilson, R. H., Goodwin, W. H., Georgiades, E., Wolde, B., & Pitsiladis, Y. P. (2004). Y chromosome haplogroups of elite Ethiopian endurance runners. Human Genetics, 115(6), 492–497. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00439-004-1202-y   Ramsammy, A. (2022, August 31). What makes East Africans so good at distance running? Global Sport Matters. https://globalsportmatters.com/science/2019/11/01/what-makes-east-africans-so-good-at-distance-running/   Vancini, R. L., Pesquero, J. B., Fachina, R. J., Andrade, M. D. S., Borin, J. P., Montagner, P. C., & De Lira, C. a. B. (2014). Genetic aspects of athletic performance: the African runners phenomenon. Open Access Journal of Sports Medicine, 123. https://doi.org/10.2147/oajsm.s61361   Zani, A. L. S., Gouveia, M. H., Aquino, M. M., Quevedo, R., Menezes, R. L., Rotimi, C., Lwande, G. O., Ouma, C., Mekonnen, E., & Fagundes, N. J. R. (2022). Genetic differentiation in East African ethnicities and its relationship with endurance running success. PLoS ONE, 17(5), e0265625. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0265625

Anya Singh Introduction Memory is understood as the persistence of learning and retention of information over time, and it is crucial to our daily lives; being able to store, retain, and retrieve memories gives us the ability to reflect on our past, make plans for our future, and more. As such, extensive research has been done to identify factors that improve our memory, which include regular exercise, appropriate nutrition, and adequate sleep, among many others (Harvard Medical School).  Sleep stands out among these factors—according to the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (2023), us humans spend a third of our lives sleeping! Because of this, sleep is also well understood to have a large impact on our wellbeing. While we’re asleep, we give our brains time to rest, remove toxins, and prepare for the next day, and a lack of quality sleep can greatly increase our risk of diseases and disorders, ranging from heart diseases to memory disorders such as dementia (Wein, 2021). But what exactly goes on during sleep that has such an impact on our memory?  Neurological Standpoint A Brief Overview of Memory How do we form memories in the first place? The formation of a memory, or the encoding of an experience, involves taking in visual and auditory information from our environment. Upon receiving this input, a particular set of neurons in our brain is prompted to fire, or to become active (The University of Queensland, 2018). The concurrent activation of the neurons in this group comprises a “neuronal representation” of the event in our brains and is the basis of memory formation.  This process is effective in continuously encoding information in our hippocampus, a specific site in the brain dedicated to memory consolidation. However, it results in the formation of memories which last for short periods of time and which are especially vulnerable to interference from other newly encoded information. The recall of these memories can help stabilize them, though; each time a previously encoded experience or bit of information is recalled, the set of neurons that fired when the information was first encoded—the neuronal representation—fires again, or reactivates, and the connection between these neurons is strengthened. This persistent strengthening  of connections between neurons is what helps a memory last longer. Even with the mechanism of strengthening memories through recall, we unfortunately still run into two issues when it comes to meaningful memory: Limited storage in the hippocampus As referenced earlier, the hippocampus is the structure in our brains that initially stores all of our newly created memories—but its storage space is finite. As we continue to take in stimuli from our environment and form new memories, the hippocampus runs out of space to store this information. The encoding of new, potentially conflicting, information has the capacity to erase older memories in the hippocampus due to its limited space—something that we formally call “catastrophic interference” (Rasch & Born, 2013).  2. Memory Strength The prospect of catastrophic interference shows how freshly formed memories aren’t incredibly resistant to interference from memories of other events and experiences and are relatively temporary as a result. While a cascade of events on the molecular level works to stabilize memories shortly after an initial encoding and each subsequent recall, more is needed to truly strengthen our memories and help them remain intact in the long-term. Systems Consolidation  Luckily, a process we call “systems consolidation” is able to address these issues!  Systems consolidation consists essentially of interactions between the hippocampus and another brain structure called the neocortex, a region of the brain that is dedicated to higher-level functions such as sensory perception, cognition, and goal-directed behavior (ScienceDirect, n.d.). During sleep, the set of neurons that fired together when a memory was first encoded—the neuronal representation of a memory—is repeatedly activated along with the neocortical brain regions that were once involved with the encoding of the memory. Just as connections between neurons get strengthened through recall as described earlier, as these reactivations continue, the neuronal representation of the memory gets strengthened specifically in the neocortex . As this process moves along, the neuronal representation slowly starts to wane its dependence on the hippocampus and becomes integrated with the neocortex. Eventually, the representation is no longer stored in the hippocampus and is able to be retrieved using the neocortex only (Klinzing et al., 2019).  When our brains go through this process, the limited storage of the hippocampus becomes less of an issue—systems consolidation frees up space in the hippocampus by allowing memories to rely on the neocortex instead! Our brains are also given the extra push to stabilize memories for long-term storage with systems consolidation, as the process truly strengthens the neuronal connections and gives them shelter from constant interference. Not only does systems consolidation address our two issues, but because the process involves strengthening of some neural connections and the weakening of others, as well as integrating memories into related ones and into existing bodies of knowledge, it also serves to organize our experiences and enhance our levels of abstraction (Klinzing et al., 2019).  Why Sleep? If the interactions that take place during systems consolidation are what give rise to these benefits in our memory, what exactly is sleep’s role? To tie it all together, sleep is so crucial to our memory as it presents our brains with a window of opportunity to perform this process; during our sleeping hours, we experienced an increased amount of neurotransmitters which facilitate communication between the hippocampus and neocortex, as well as a reduced amount of stimulation and lack of new events which helps prevent interference (Genzel & Wixted, n.d.; Yale School of Medicine, 2022). These conditions allow for effective systems consolidation! Conclusion Beyond the initial formation of our memories, the strengthening and prolonged storage of them depends on a myriad of processes that occur on both the cellular and neural level—systems consolidation is a particularly important process that works throughout our entire lives to facilitate the stabilization and organization of our memories for the long-term, and it relies on the quality conditions that present themselves during sleep. After understanding what your brain does for you during sleep to ensure that these processes occur to get you ready for a new day of taking in information and creating meaningful memories, hopefully you are more motivated to get more quality sleep! References Genzel, L., & Wixted, J. T. (n.d.). Cellular and systems consolidation of declarative memory. http://wixtedlab.ucsd.edu/publications/wixted2017/Genzel_Wixted_2017.pdf   Harvard Medical School. (n.d.). Memory. Harvard Health. https://www.health.harvard.edu/topics/memory     Klinzing, J. G., Niethard, N., & Born, J. (2019). Mechanisms of systems memory consolidation during sleep. Nature Neuroscience, 22(10), 1598–1610. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41593-019-0467-3   Rasch, B., & Born, J. (2013). About Sleep’s Role in Memory. Physiological Reviews, 93(2), 681–766. https://doi.org/10.1152/physrev.00032.2012    ScienceDirect. (n.d.). Neocortex. ScienceDirect Topics. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/psychology/neocortex#:~:text=The%20neocortex%20is%20a%20complex,perception%2C%20emotion%2C%20and%20cognition .  The University of Queensland. (2018, July 23). How are memories formed?. Queensland Brain Institute - University of Queensland. https://qbi.uq.edu.au/brain-basics/memory/how-are-memories-formed     Wein, H. (Ed.). (2021, April 18). Good Sleep for Good Health. National Institutes of Health. https://newsinhealth.nih.gov/2021/04/good-sleep-good-health     Yale School of Medicine. (2022, May 10). Sleep’s Crucial Role in Preserving Memory. Yale School of Medicine. https://medicine.yale.edu/news-article/sleeps-crucial-role-in-preserving-memory/

Written By: Diyanka Lahane Introduction While growing up, children are taught that animals can be anything ranging from the smallest ant to the largest elephant. However, for most of our education, we focus heavily only on the anatomy of mammals, specifically humans. Whilst human anatomy and health is an incredibly important educational topic for youth, this focus causes a disconnect in how we perceive other animal groups. Are other animals really that different from humans? In fact, how different are other mammals to humans to lizards to pigeons and so on?  Animals are separated into vertebrates and invertebrates. Invertebrates are animals that do not have a spine/backbone. This can include insects such as butterflies and wasps. Vertebrates are a separate classification of animals; they do have a spine/backbone and a hard-shell skull to protect the brain. This includes birds, reptiles, mammals, and amphibians. In this article, we will discuss anatomical differences and similarities in the brain and its function amongst three specific groups: mammals, birds, and reptiles. Do these anatomical similarities lead to common cognitive abilities amongst the groups or are their differences too great?  It is important to be well informed in this topic as understanding anatomical differences can explain cognitive advantages and disadvantages between animal groups. It will provide a basis for further research in ecological roles for various species, insight to evolutionary patterns across groups, and policy for animal conservation organizations.  Birds Bird brains, also known as avian brains, function very similarly to mammalian brains despite having different neuroanatomy. Specifically, “connectional similarities in the brains” of both animal groups allow for conclusions to be drawn that both groups have similar cognitive function (Emery, N.J., Clayton, N.S., 2005). A mammalian brain’s neocortex consists of six layers, each layer having its own chemical composition and neural pathways (Emery, N.J., Clayton, N.S., 2005). The neocortex is important in regards to planning and critical thinking. Unlike mammalian braids, avian brains do not have any laminar organization aside from the dorsal surface on the forebrain which is three layers. Additionally, although avian brains do have their own neocortex, it does not have the same function as a mammal’s neocortex. Rather, bird brains have a large pallium- upper layer of the avian forebrain- that controls memory, learning, problem-solving, and so on (Jarvis, E.D., Güntürkün, O., Bruce, L., et al. 2005). Any brain lesions in this part of the avian brain could lead to problems in working memory or delayed reversal learning (Emery, N.J., Clayton, N.S., 2005). While the specific anatomical part of the avian brain is recognized, there has not been enough research to further differentiate it from the mammalian brain or find further function (Jarvis, E.D., Güntürkün, O., Bruce, L., et al. 2005). Additional research found that avian brains have a similar visual, somatosensory, and auditory (sight, touch, and hearing) pathways to the mammalian brain. Both pathways receive input from the thalamus and this information is processed in the neocortex for mammals and neostriatum and hyperstriatum in birds. The neostriatum and hyperstriatum are parts of the pallium. Avian brains have a different anatomical make-up of the mammal’s prefrontal cortex (Jarvis, E.D., Güntürkün, O., Bruce, L., et al. 2005).  The pallium in avian brains is more similar to reptiles than mammals. Palladium is the grey and white matter that covers the cerebrum. There are four sections of the pallium: medial, dorsal, lateral, and ventral. The medial section of pallium is the hippocampus for both mammals and birds and medial cortex for reptiles. The neocortex in mammals is the dorsal ventricular ridge (DVR) which is just the lateral and ventral pallium in birds and reptiles (Rattenborg, N.C., Martinez-Gonzalez, D., 2011). Neurogenesis is the process of creating new neurons in the brain. While little research has been done on this topic, a trend in birds is that neurogenesis changes seasonally in the hippocampus and the part of the brain that controls song control. Neuron production is at its peak in the breeding season (Garcia-Verdugo, J.M., Ferrón, S., Flames, N., et al, 2002). In mammals, neuron development occurs before the mammal becomes an adult whereas the opposite is true for birds.  Reptiles  Birds and mammals are the two groups where the hippocampus is crucial for cognition and memory. Do reptiles fall under that category as well, or do they have a different neural mechanism? Mammals, such as humans, need the hippocampus to form long-term memories. Certain brain lesions can hinder the hippocampus from connecting to other parts of the brain, which stop the formation of more episodic memories (Rattenborg, N.C., Martinez-Gonzalez, D., 2011). Information passes through primary and secondary cortices before entering the hippocampus. However, the hippocampus does not just receive several bits of sensory information, but instead a heavily processed multi-level piece of information that results in a memory. Similar to birds and mammals, reptiles have a spatial learning ability, however they are not hippocampus-dependent. Instead, most of their memory learning is through the medial cortex (Rodriguez, F., López, J.C., Vargas, J.P., et al, 2002).  Reptiles and mammals have similar cortex structure. However, instead of the six-layered structure like a mammal, reptiles have a clear three-layer structure. While there is lacking evidence regarding specificity of motor and somatosensory pathways, it is concluded that reptiles have a simpler and significantly less complex cognitive ability. This means that reptiles do not have several different forms of information processing, unlike mammals which have several different processing pathways (Naumann, R.K., Ondracek, J.M., Reiter, S., et al, 2015).  There is not much research on reptiles entirely, due to difficulty maintaining a large sample size with a fast life cycle. However in a recent study, lizards were tested in their spatial cognition ability to determine how their evolved learning strategy is. This experiment was done to question the belief that reptiles have instinct-driven learning. When lizards are placed in a new environment, it is concluded that mapping strategies were used to determine the lizard’s location. This means that lizards, and most reptiles, can recognize visual placeholders as a frame of reference for necessities like shelter or bodies of water (Font, E., 2019).  Conclusion In conclusion, each animal group has unique neuroanatomical formation that is dependent on their lifestyle and ecological adaptations. Throughout one’s education, it is constantly reinforced that mammals have the most complex cognition ability across all animal groups. Although the anatomical structures of mammals are most complex, other animal groups can still perform higher processing functions with less complex neuroanatomical structures. Further research should be conducted on the evolutionary basis of birds and reptiles and how their environment can affect higher cognition.  Resources Emery, N.J., Clayton, N.S. (2005). Evolution of the avian brain and intelligence. Current Biology , 15(23). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2005.11.029   Font, E. (2019). Rapid learning of a spatial memory task in a lacertid lizard (Podarcis liolepis). Behavioral Processes , 169. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beproc.2019.103963   Garcia-Verdugo, J.M., Ferrón, S., Flames, N., Collado, L., Desfilis, E., Font, E. (2002) The proliferative ventricular zone in adult vertebrates: a comparative study using reptiles, birds, and mammals. Brain Research Bulletin , 57(6); 765-775. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0361-9230(01)00769-9   Jarvis, E.D., Güntürkün, O., Bruce, L., Csillag, A., Karten, H., Kuenzel, W., et al. (2005). Avian brains and a new understanding of vertebrate brain evolution. National Reviews Neuroscience , (6);151-159. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn1606   Naumann, R.K., Ondracek, J.M., Reiter, S., Shein-Idelson, M., Tosches, M.A., Yamawaki, T.M., et al. (2015). The reptilian brain. Current Biology , 25(8); 317-321. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2015.02.049   Rattenborg, N.C., Martinez-Gonzalez, D. (2011). A bird-brain view of episodic memory. Behavioral Brain Research , 222(1); 236-245. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbr.2011.03.030   Rodriguez, F., López, J.C., Vargas, J.P., Broglio, C., Góomez, Y., Salas, C. (2002). Spatial memory and hippocampal pallium through vertebrate evolution: insights from reptiles and teleost fish.  Brain Research Bulletin , 57(3-4); 499-503. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0361-9230(01)00682-7

Tate Madison Image credit to Phoebe Hwang Understanding PTSD Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a mental health condition that often develops after experiencing or witnessing a traumatic event. These usually include a situation where someone’s life has been threatened or severe injury has occurred, such as war, natural disaster, plane or car crashes, sexual assault, or abuse. The amygdala, a brain region responsible for controlling fear and triggering the fight-or-flight response, plays a significant role in PTSD. For people with PTSD and excessive stress, the amygdala can become hyperactive, causing an exaggerated response to perceived threats. Leading people with PTSD produce high levels of fight-or-flight hormones even when no real danger is present (Gupta et al., 2017). This excessive stress activates the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA axis), the primary physiological system mediating the body’s stress response. The HPA axis regulates the release of endocrine hormones, including cortisol, a major stress hormone. When activated it drives cortisol levels and pro-inflammatory effects, which impact the skin barrier, the immune system, and the fundamental functions of the skin (Gupta et al., 2017). How PTSD Affects the Skin This increase in cortisol is evident on the skin and can be compounded by the short term effects of PTSD, such as intense sweating or heightened alertness. Over time, the body adapts to this persistent level of stress, causing the skin’s distressed state to become its normalized appearance.   The skin is densely packed with sensory nerves that transmit sensations such as touch, pain, temperature, itch, and other physical stimuli to the central nervous system. During sympathetic arousal in PTSD, these nerves become highly reactive, causing the skin to respond intensely and resulting in periods of excessive daytime sweating and night sweats. This heightened nervous system activity creates an exaggerated skin response, as the body attempts to cope with the physical symptoms of stress (Gupta et al., 2017).   Over time, PTSD can cause the skin cells to widen, allowing essential moisture to escape and making the skin more vulnerable to harmful substances. This can result in dryness and excessive oil production. PTSD may also trigger the body’s inflammatory pathways, potentially leading to chronic inflammation in the skin. Those who experience prolonged psychological stress often report elevated levels of inflammation and impaired skin function. Dry skin, in particular, can occur as the body redirects water away from the skin’s outer layers, using this as a survival mechanism to maintain hydration in response to stress (Gupta et al., 2017). Specific Skin Conditions Linked to PTSD Chronic Idiopathic Urticaria (CIU) is a skin condition that causes itchy, red welts or spots called hives to appear on the skin for upwards of six weeks. There have been case reports indicating that CIU can appear as a core symptom of PTSD, sometimes emerging years after the initial trauma experience. In such instances, patients may not associate their recurrent CIU with PTSD, and the trauma triggers that lead to PTSD may be highly individual and not qualify as a stressor by a standard criteria (PTSD UK, n.d.).  Similarly, Rosacea is a common skin condition characterized by flushing or persistent redness, often affecting the face, with emotional stress frequently cited as one of its primary triggers. Acne, along with other stress-related skin conditions, can also be exacerbated by PTSD. The increased levels of stress hormones and inflammatory responses associated with PTSD can worsen existing acne or lead to new acne lesions (Zemler, 2023). The Bidirectional Relationship Between Skin and PTSD Alexithymia is a personality trait characterized by difficulty in expressing, describing, or understanding one’s emotions. This condition has been linked to various physical health issues, such as lower back pain, asthma, allergies, irritable bowel syndrome, and fibromyalgia. Recent research now suggests that alexithymia may contribute to skin conditions as well, including acne. Those with alexithymia struggle to communicate and process their emotions effectively, which has been seen to exacerbate the development of stress-related skin conditions (Gupta et al., 2017). Psychological symptoms associated with PTSD often correlate with the physiological manifestations. Stress can overly activate nerves, particularly those involved in voluntary movement, which can result in a faster heartbeat but reduced blood flow to tissues, leading to lower oxygen levels throughout the body. Consequently, the skin becomes more sensitive and responsive to stress. When the brain perceives stress, it releases corticotropin, a hormone that stimulates the adrenal glands to produce stress hormones. This hormonal release triggers the release of histamine from skin cells, causing redness, itching, and the formation of bumps, similar to the reaction of a splinter or infection. This all due to the heightened sensitivity within the nervous system (Gupta et al., 2017). Psycho-Dermatology Psycho-dermatology is a specialized field that addresses skin conditions by integrating both psychiatric and physiological perspectives. This approach not only examines the physical aspects of skin issues, but also considers the emotional and mental health factors that may contribute to these conditions. Psycho-dermatologists go beyond prescribing medications and topical treatments by incorporating therapeutic interventions, such as cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) and psychoanalytic therapy. Given the comorbidity of PTSD with other mental health conditions, such as anxiety, depression, and substance abuse, this comprehensive approach is crucial for effective treatment (Gupta et al., 2017). Lifestyle Changes Research indicates that incorporating probiotic-rich foods into one’s diet can help reduce anxiety, depression, and acne. This natural therapy offers a dual benefit by addressing both skin conditions and PTSD symptoms. Additionally, seeking early intervention is crucial, as timely treatment can significantly improve the speed and effectiveness of symptom management. By combining medication, therapy, and lifestyle changes, individuals can achieve a more holistic and effective approach to managing PTSD-related skin conditions (Zemler, 2023). References Gupta, M. A., Jarosz, P., & Gupta, A. K. (2017). Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and the dermatology patient. Clinics in Dermatology , 35(3), 260–266. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clindermatol.2017.01.005 PTSD UK. (n.d.). Skin conditions . PTSD UK.   https://www.ptsduk.org/skin-conditions . Zemler, J. (2023, June 27). The Surprising Connection between PTSD and Acne. Stylist. https://www.stylist.co.uk/beauty/skincare/acne-ptsd-skin-stress-anxiety-psychodermatology/636399 .

Desiree Lano Henry Fuseli, John. The Nightmare . 1781. Detroit Institute of Arts, Detroit, Michigan. What is Sleep Paralysis? Sleep paralysis is a terrifying phenomenon in which the sufferer is unable to move during the onset of sleep or during awakening. Eye movement and breathing are still functional; however, one can experience frightening hallucinations, the feeling of something heavy on the chest, and/or false illusions of muscle movement. It is largely seen in narcolepsy, a neurological disorder defined by daytime drowsiness, abnormal sleeping patterns, and cataplexy (loss of muscle tone when experiencing intense emotions). When sleep paralysis occurs without the presence of narcolepsy, this is referred to as isolated sleep paralysis (ISP) (Denis et al., 2017) and has a lifetime prevalence of 30%-50% in healthy individuals (Mume & Ikem, 2009). Research on the relationship between psychiatric conditions and sleep paralysis is scant, but there is good evidence for several conditions, most notably post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and anxiety disorders. This article will discuss these variables, with a main focus on a great article by Wróbel-Knybel et al., 2022. Associated Psychiatric Conditions Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and anxiety disorders are significantly associated with ISP (Wróbel-Knybel  et al., 2022), with a particularly strong correlation with anxiety and panic disorders (Mume & Ikem, 2009). More severe disorders (i.e., mood and psychotic disorders) have weaker evidence; however, there still seems to be a relationship. One study found that while there was no difference in lifetime prevalence of ISP between patients with schizophrenia and healthy controls, the frequency of ISP episodes was significantly higher in those with schizophrenia (Park & Yang, 2002). Though there is correlational evidence for a number of psychiatric disorders, the most prevalent are PTSD and anxiety disorders. PTSD There is evidence to suggest that PTSD is the disorder most correlated with sleep paralysis. In a study done by Wro`bel-Knybel et al., it was found that a greater severity of symptoms in those with PTSD is correlated with at least one episode of SP in firefighters, as well as an increase in the amount of SP episodes in those with PTSD (Wro`bel-Knybel et al., 2021). However, this study fails to assess PTSD and SP in the general population, which would be useful for drawing larger conclusions. Further research should include healthy controls to compare results between the two groups. Anxiety Disorders Wro`bel-Knybel et al., 2021 have found a positive correlation between episodes of SP and perceived stress in the same sample of firefighters, as well as a correlation between SP and higher levels of anxiety as a personality trait. Another notable correlation with PTSD found by these authors is a tendency to worry (Wro`bel-Knybel et al., 2021). Additionally, Otto et al. (2006) found a 20% prevalence in a sample of outpatients receiving treatment for anxiety disorders with comorbid SP. According to the authors of this study, this may be explained by the common sleep disruptions experienced in those with anxiety disorders. Perhaps treating these sleep and anxiety disorders in patients successfully can lead to a reduction in SP episodes. Conclusion SP is a somewhat understudied phenomenon, particularly when it comes to its relationship to psychiatric disorders. Recent research has shown SP to correlate strongly with both PTSD and anxiety-related disorders; however, its relationship with more severe disorders does seem to be weaker. Overall, more studies should be carried out and subsequently replicated in order to build more on our current knowledge. Knowing common predispositions and variables associated with this frightening condition can be useful for clinicians to effectively assess risk in their patients and come up with better solutions. References Denis, D., French, C. C., & Gregory, A. M. (2018). A systematic review of variables associated with sleep paralysis. Sleep Medicine Reviews , 38 (38), 141–157. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smrv.2017.05.005 Mume, C. O., & Ikem, I. C. (2009). Sleep Paralysis and psychopathology. South African Journal of Psychiatry , 15 (4), 4. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajpsychiatry.v15i4.185 Wróbel-Knybel, P., Flis, M., Rog, J., Jalal, B., Wołkowski, L., & Karakuła-Juchnowicz, H. (2022). Characteristics of Sleep Paralysis and Its Association with Anxiety Symptoms, Perceived Stress, PTSD, and Other Variables Related to Lifestyle in Selected High Stress Exposed Professions. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health , 19 (13), 7821. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19137821 Park, J.-H., & Yang, C.-K. (2002). Sleep Paralysis in Schizophrenia and Mood Disorder Sleep Paralysis in Schizophrenia and Mood Disorder. Sleep Medicine and Psychophysiology , 9 (2), 115–121. Wróbel-Knybel, P., Rog, J., Jalal, B., Szewczyk, P., & Karakuła-Juchnowicz, H. (2021). Sleep Paralysis among Professional Firefighters and a Possible Association with PTSD—Online Survey-Based Study. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health , 18 (18), 9442. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18189442 Otto, M. W., Simon, N. M., Powers, M., Hinton, D., Zalta, A. K., & Pollack, M. H. (2006). Rates of isolated sleep paralysis in outpatients with anxiety disorders. Journal of Anxiety Disorders , 20 (5), 687–693. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2005.07.002