Alexa Kightlinger Introduction As a child, I remember watching one of my favorite television shows, Monk  (2002) .  The show features a detective who develops obsessive-compulsive disorder following the unsolved murder of his wife. Though his OCD originally cost him his lead position as a homicide detective, Mr. Monk continued to solve crimes with his former boss and assistant. What may have at the start been a hindrance soon turned out to be a blessing in disguise. This newfound fear of germs and contamination aided the former detective by allowing him to see clues no one else could identify. At the end of each episode, Mr. Monk would inevitably solve the previously “unsolvable” mystery by piecing together a seemingly innocuous clue; be it something someone said, an ordinary item, or eyewitness testimony. Obviously, not all crimes are as convoluted as the ones portrayed in the show. Would it not be easy if all crimes, from petty theft to murder, had someone who could identify the perpetrator simply by being in the right place at the right time? I used to think memory was an infallible piece of information. After all, how can one misremember something they’ve seen with their own two eyes? However, as I’ve grown and learned, memory can be affected by many factors which include but are not limited to stress, duration of event, distance, lightning, intoxication, and time elapsed since the crime (Huang & Wixted, 2024). It becomes even harder to differentiate between accurate and inaccurate witness testimonies when memory contamination has occurred. Often witnesses are unaware this even happens and will sincerely believe their recollection of the events (Huang & Wixted, 2024). A popular example of memory contamination occurred when several eyewitnesses misidentified Richard Jewell, a security guard, at the Centennial Olympic Park bombing during the 1996 Summer Olympics. This misidentification led to media scrutiny despite little evidence suggesting he was the bomber. It was only until Eric Rudolph pleaded guilty to the charges against Jewell that the security guard was dismissed as a suspect. Though Jewell was never officially charged with the crimes associated with the bombing, his personal and professional life was negatively impacted. Trauma and Memory Distortion Trauma could arguably be the biggest factor in memory distortion as, after a traumatic event, the effortful retrieval and unsolicited recollection can introduce false details in the individual’s memory (Strange & Takarangi, 2015). Previous studies have suggested that memory reconsolidation allows it to return to a malleable state. One such study was conducted by Nader et al. (2000) where researchers injected rats with amisomycin, which inhibits the formation of new memories. Injection would occur during three conditions; before and after consolidation of a memory and during the reactivation, or remembering, of a memory. Before injection, rats are given a single pairing of a tone (conditioned stimulus) in addition to a foot shock (unconditioned stimulus). During testing periods, the freezing of rats characterized fear learning as rats learned to associate the tone with the fear of being shocked. When the same process was repeated with the anisomycin the results were the following:  Anisomycin injected before consolidation → Rats would not freeze before tone. Anisomycin injected after consolidation → Rats freeze when the tone is played. Anisomycin injected during the reactivation of a memory → Rats would not freeze. Reexposing rats to the previously learned fear-conditioned tasks but injecting them with the drug during the consolidation phase disrupted the information learned from the original memory (Nader et al., 2000). This supports the idea that original memories can be altered through the introduction of new information (Nader et al., 2000). The study prompted the researchers to redefine memories that have been reactivated as “active” memories. These active memories are labile and can undergo disruption and are defined differently than prior research from Misanin et al’s (1968) previously suggested “new” memories (Nader et al., 2000). But why does memory distortion occur? Most cases have shown that those who experience trauma tend to follow a similar pattern: remembering the event as more traumatic than what actually happened. This “over-remembering” of trauma often leads to poor mental health which is what happened in a study completed with Desert Storm veterans. In a 1997 study done by Southwick et al., researchers asked fifty-nine National Guard members about their combat involvement following the Gulf War. Responses were taken at two different times, a month after returning from war, and then two years after returning from war. Veterans were asked whether certain events happened during their service (etc. watching a colleague die, being shot at).  Here it is important to mention that a majority of veterans would change their “no” response at one month to a “yes” response at two years when asked if the event specifically happened to them (Southwick et al., 1997). Results showed that 88% of veterans would change their response at the two-year mark to having experienced one of these events happening to them while 61% would claim more than one of these events happened (Southwick et al., 1997). In addition to this, veterans were scored on the Mississippi Scale for Combat-Related Posttraumatic Stress Disorder at the two-year mark. The over-remembering of events was shown to have a significant positive correlation between the Mississippi Scale and the trauma questionnaire, suggesting that an increase in PTSD symptoms may intensify the memories related to the traumatic event (Southwick et al., 1997).  A COVID-19 Study Trauma memories are no different as they, too, are malleable. In the context of trauma, flashbulb memories are vivid and detailed memories of significant events that carry a heavy emotional context with the individual. Flashbulb memories refer strictly to autobiographical memories that surround the period individuals learn of horrifying and life-changing public events (Laciano et al., 2024). Flashbulb memories (FBM) are different than first-hand memories, which occur when the individual experiences the event rather than learning about the event from another source (Hirst & Phelps, 2017). Events that can lead to flashbulb memories can include politically charged events, assassinations, or national disasters. While many flashbulb memories primarily revolve around more negatively charged events, they can also occur following positive events. These memories can also occur on a smaller scale, for example, learning of the death of a parent. A popular example of flashbulb memories revolves around the September 11th terrorist attack where many misremember four planes involved in the attack (Hirst & Phelps, 2017).  A 2024 study conducted by Laciano et al. on more recent events, notably the COVID-19 pandemic, performed a cross-national study across eleven countries to investigate the formation of flashbulb memories as well the effect of pandemic-related variables on these FBMs. The effects of COVID-19 have been long-lasting and have had many long-term impacts on the economy, tourism, mental and physical health, job security, and education. The study aimed to look into how events surrounding this period were stored in our memories as the encoding, storage, and retrieval of COVID-related events are important in examining the emotional impacts the pandemic had on individuals. Additionally, few studies have examined the impact this pandemic has had on the storage and retrieval of autobiographical memory specifically. In order to thoroughly examine the impact of FBMs, researchers had several goals:  Explore the formation of FBMs after becoming aware of the first COVID-19 case in an individual’s own country. Test effects of emotional and cognitive variables on the formation of FBM formation using both objective (government restrictions) and subjective variables (personal and global importance of pandemic) Explore the variability of FBM formation across different countries. (Laciano et al., 2024) While a total of 15 countries initially participated in data collection, four countries (France, Germany, the United States of America, and the United Kingdom) withdrew participation leaving researchers from the remaining 11 countries (Canada, China, Denmark, Greece, Italy, Malaysia, New Zealand, Poland, Russia, Spain, and Turkey) with data points collected from 2306 individuals. Participants were asked questions regarding COVID-19 subjective and objective severity, pandemic impact expectedness, global and personal importance of the pandemic, and rehearsal of the pandemic (how much time they spent researching or otherwise discussing the pandemic). Results showed that, while all countries considered COVID-19 to be highly significant at both individual and worldwide levels, China had the highest FBM specificity (Laciano et al., 2024). This may be attributed to the fact the first cases of COVID-19 were found in China. The extensive media coverage of China during this time and the complete lockdowns that were implemented in major cities most likely contributed to Chinese citizens having more detailed and specific memories regarding the events. Regression models were run and showed that the variables age and subjective severity had negatively predicted FBM specificity whereas positive associations were predicted for the factors of pandemic impact expectedness and rehearsal (Laciano et al., 2024). This essentially meant that older individuals or those who thought the event was more severe would have less specific memories of the event. However, future research should consider the long-term nature of the event for these findings. On the other hand, those who were more prepared for the pandemic impact or otherwise kept up to date with the onslaught of new information on the pandemic tended to have more detailed memories. Importance  Traumatic events can significantly impact how memories are encoded, stored, and retrieved. Further research into which point of memory consolidation has been impacted can help us understand how traumatic events may alter these processes. Knowing this, clinicians can create more effective treatment plans that can allow their patients to explore their past and learn to heal. There are also legal implications to be had, as this brings into question whether we can trust the accuracy of memories of trauma victims. Understanding the complexity of traumatic memories may also help us design preventative strategies for individuals at risk of developing trauma-related disorders, such as those in the military. In the end, deepening our understanding on how traumatic events affect memory not only enhances clinical and legal practices but will allow us to pave the way for more effective prevention and intervention strategies, improving the mental health outcome for impacted individuals. References Hirst, W., & Phelps, E. A. (2017). Flashbulb memories. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 25 (1), 36-41. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721415622487 . Huang, J., & Wixted, J. T. (2024). Jury instructions should prioritize reflector variables recorded during the first test of an eyewitness’ memory. Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition . Advance online publication. https://dx.doi.org/10.1037/mac0000182 . Lanciano, T., Alfeo, F., Curci, A., Marin, C., D’Uggento, A. M., Decarolis, D., … Zheng, J. (2024). The flashbulb-like nature of memory for the first COVID-19 case and the impact of the emergency. A cross-national survey. Memory , 32 (2), 264–282. https://doi.org/10.1080/09658211.2024.2310554 . Misanin, J. R., Miller, R. R., & Lewis, D. J. (1968). Retrograde amnesia produced by electroconvulsive shock after reactivation of a consolidated memory trace. Science 160 (3827), 554-5. https://doi.org/science.160.3827.554 . Nader, K., Schafe, G. E., & Le Doux, J. E. (2000). Fear memories require protein synthesis in the amygdala for reconsolidation after retrieval. Nature 406, 722-726. https://doi.org/10.1038/35021052 .  Southwick, S. M., Morgan, C. A., Nicolaou, A. L., & Charney, D. S. (1997). Consistency of memory for combat-related traumatic events in veterans of Operation Desert Storm. The American Journal of Psychiatry 154 (2), 173-177. https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.154.2.173 . Strange, D., & Takarangi, M. K. T. (2015). Memory distortion for traumatic events: the role of mental imagery. Frontiers in Psychiatry (6) 27, 1-4. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2015.00027 . Witness Identify 1 person 3 suspect Stock Vector (Royalty Free) 406777285 | Shutterstock . (n.d.). Shutterstock. https://www.shutterstock.com/image-vector/witness-identify-1-person-3-suspect-406777285

By: Felicia Shen Baumrind’s Theory on Parenting Styles Renowned clinical and developmental psychologist, Diana Baumrind is best known for her research on parenting styles, eventually coining three primary styles of parenting: authoritative, authoritarian, and permissive. Baumrind’s interest in parenting styles prompted additional research which resulted in the finding that parenting styles significantly influence various facets of a child’s life, including career trajectory, interpersonal relationships, and overall health. Since then, the authoritative parenting style has been widely recognized as the optimal approach in parent-child dynamics, inspiring the creation of various intervention programs, books, talks, an d conferences  (Sutton, 2024). However, Baurmrind’s study in the developmental psychology field has largely been focused on Western youth or a Eurocentric perspective. Consequently, there has been much debate about the applicability of her theory and similar frameworks on children, of non-European descent. Cultural differences are indicative of the fact that Baumrind’s parenting styles are not universally effective across varying cultural contexts.  For those unfamiliar with Baumrind's theories on parenting styles, a concise summary of each style’s characteristics and the associated developmental effects on children are as follows:  Authoritative The authoritative parenting style, identified by Baumrind as the gold standard due to its result in the optimal outcome, demands a lot of patience and effort as is characterized by high expectations and responsiveness. Parents who employ this style have clear guidelines for their expectations and explain their reasoning for disciplinary action as they aim to foster an environment that is warm with healthy communication. Children raised in this style are often confident, responsible, self-regulating, have high self-esteem, and can manage negative emotions more effectively, leading to better social outcomes and emotional health. Their firm and warm style is connected with intimate parent-child relations and positive child outcomes.  Authoritarian This style is noticeably harsher in child regulation as it is characterized with one-way communication where the parent establishes strict rules that the child must follow and there is no room for negotiation as the child is expected to uphold their standards and expectations. This parenting style also involves any mistakes that automatically lead to punishment. Parents who employ this style are considered less nurturing, and there is limited flexibility. Children from this parenting style are often well-behaved due to fear of consequences, may have high levels of aggression or become shy, may become socially awkward, and have low self-esteem, which leads them to be unable to make their own decisions. Their strict and restrictive parental style and lack of warmth lead to higher parent-child conflict, negative youth behaviors, and poor mental health.  Permissive On the other end of the spectrum, we have permissive parenting. Parents impose limited rules on children, have low expectations, and rarely use discipline. Children would have a lot of freedom, which can lead to unhealthy or negative habits, such as sleeping late, not doing homework, and general unhealthy eating habits. While children from this parenting style may have decent self-esteem and social skills, they can become impulsive, selfish, demanding, and lack self-regulation.  Neglectful   Neglectful parenting, also called uninvolved parenting was added later by psychologists Eleanor Maccoby and John Martin and is not considered part of the original Baumrind’s Theory of Parenting Styles, however this parenting style is often included in many studies. The theory claims that the parent is uninvolved with the child’s life. They may fulfill basic needs, but are mentally or emotionally detached from their child’s life. There is little communication and little nurturing, leading to little to no expectations of their child. Children from this parenting style are usually more resilient and self-sufficient but they often develop them out of necessity. They may have trouble controlling their emotions, have less effective coping strategies, may have academic challenges, and have difficulty maintaining or nurturing social relationships.  Tiger Parenting  As a Chinese American, I’m acutely aware of the concept of the“Tiger Parent.” Given its strong association with Asian American families, it only felt right to mention this particular parenting style within the context of my cultural background. Moreover, this article focuses on the application of parenting styles among Asian Americans. Discussing “tiger parenting” is both relevant and necessary.  The term “tiger parent,” coined by Amy Chua, a Harvard law Professor, in her 2011 memoir, Battle Hymn of the Tiger Mother,  contributed to  Asian parents being stereotyped as controlling, strict, and severe. Chua claims that the methods she used to raise her daughters are aligned with the Chinese cultural emphasis on academic achievement and family obligation—two key ways in which children can bring honor to their families. However, these practices stem from cultural differences and distinct family values between Chinese and European families.  European families hold and practice different values and behaviors compared to Asian families and, subsequently, Asian American families, which can lead to misunderstandings and differing perspectives in parenting styles. Western and European families desired child-rearing goals are independence, individualism, social assertiveness, confidence, and confidence (Rubin & Chung, 2006). They also emphasize children’s self-esteem and personal growth (Chao & Tseng, 2002). Parents wish to build a close parent-child relationship to reduce conflict and promote healthy communication and harmony. On the other hand, Asian families are culturally collectivistic, emphasize interdependence, conformity, emotional self-control, and humility, fostering a strong sense of family obligation and orientation and respect towards parents and elders (Chao & Tseng, 2002). Asian American parents measure children’s success by their academic performance and attachment to familial responsibilities, so the child may feel that strong sense of academic pressure and family obligation. Asian parents typically practice strict control and are regarded as less expressive in showing affection compared to their Western counterparts, so it may seem that they practice authoritarian parenting, but that parenting style is not always related to negative youth outcomes. Thus, Chua’s memoir brought up the question of whether happiness and the pursuit of a child’s dreams and interests are more important than the pursuit of success that the parent defines.  Effects of Parenting Styles in Chinese Americans Much of developmental psychological theories, like parenting styles, were developed through studies and experiments of Western families. There hasn’t been much literature where a person of color is the focal point. This is why it is important to apply these frameworks to various racial and ethnic groups.  In a study conducted by Kim et al. (2013), they examined various child-rearing practices among Chinese American families between both parent and child. They particularly focused on the phenomenon of tiger parenting and the effects of this parenting style. The study concluded that supportive parenting led to the most positive outcomes, followed by easygoing, tiger, and harsh parenting styles in descending order of effectiveness. Compared to the other three groups, supportive parenting significantly had higher educational attainment via reportedly higher GPAs, lower levels of academic pressure, lower levels of depressive symptoms, and a stronger sense of family obligation. These results would be equivalent to the authoritative parenting style which is indicated by high scores on parental warmth and positive control. On the other hand, when comparing tiger parenting to easy-going parents, the results concluded with higher levels of academic pressure, higher levels of depressive symptoms, feelings of alienation from parents, and higher family obligation. Lastly, harsh parenting when compared with tiger parenting was reported to have higher levels of depressive symptoms, higher levels of alienation from parents, and lower levels of family obligation. This resembles the authoritarian parenting style with low parental warmth scores and high negative control scores. Overall, this study was quite revealing in terms of how different parenting styles can affect the child in various aspects.   One interesting thing to note in the Kim et al. (2013) study is that the role of the tiger parent changes from mother to father as the child goes through adolescence with tiger mothers being more common in early adolescence and then changing to a tiger father as the child becomes more gradually introduced to adulthood. So while the “tiger parent” may be more commonly associated with the mother, the concept of the “tiger parent” can be used interchangeably between mother and father. This change in parents may be the result of the roles parents play concerning the socialization of their children. The role of the tiger mom may be seen as more prevalent during the earlier periods of adolescence when the child’s social interactions are more likely to occur within the home (Inman et al., 2007). As the child moves into later periods of adolescence and enters adulthood to begin socialization with the wider society, the tiger father begins to emerge and become responsible for the child outside the home (Costigan & Dokis, 2006).  In this study, self-reports by both the parents and children concerning their perception of parenting styles and child-rearing practices, introduce the potential for response bias, particularly social desirability bias, as participants may have reported behaviors they believe are expected or socially acceptable rather than their actual practices or experiences.  Chinese American adolescents were more likely than their European counterparts to experience a mismatch between their ideals and perceptions of the parent-adolescent relationship (Wu & Chao, 2011), thus they may be more likely to report negative parenting practices. In fact, during this study, adolescents were more likely to categorize parents as harsh or tiger parents, as well as reporting negative parenting practices (Wu & Chao, 2011). So while this study was quite revealing of the parenting habits of Asian parents and the perceptions of their children, there is still much work to be done and information left to uncover when it comes to the effects of parenting styles in the Asian American diaspora.   While the focus of the Kim et al. (2013) study was primarily on tiger parenting, their study did reveal the effects of various parenting styles on Asian American parent-child relationships, which is something that is lacking in current literature.  Conclusion  No size fits all with parenting styles. What works for one family may not work for another. While the authoritative parenting style has been deemed as the golden standard, especially for European families, that may not be the case nor is it feasible for Asians or Asian American families. There are many social, contextual, and cultural factors at play.  Chua’s memoir states, “academic achievement reflects successful parenting” (Chua, 2011), however that may not always be the case. Generally, Asian American parents emphasize hard work, self-discipline, and obedience. However, you can also argue that for any family. The distinction lies in the parent’s and child’s attitude and motivation. Chinese Americans, in particular, derive many of their values and beliefs from Confucianism, an ancient Chinese philosophy that promotes attributes like filial piety, enduring hardship, and dedicating oneself to academic excellence. On the other hand, European parents would like their children to excel in their academics, but they may not place such a high level of importance or emphasis compared to Asian Americans. The Asian American cultural group is diverse, consisting of a large population with differences stemming from different cultural groups, immigration status, and the child’s cultural identity. The important thing to note is that every family is different with many nuances, as such every parent-child relationship is different.  References Chao, R. K. (2001). Extending research on the consequences of parenting style for Chinese   Americans and European Americans. Child development , 72 (6), 1832-1843. Chao, R. K., & Tseng, V. (2002). Parenting of Asians. In M. H. Bornstein (Ed.), Handbook of   parenting (Vol. 4, pp. 59 –93). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum Choi, Y., Kim, Y. S., Kim, S. Y., & Park, I. J. K. (2013). Is Asian American parenting controlling   and harsh? Empirical testing of relationships between Korean American and Western   parenting measures. Asian American Journal of Psychology, 4 (1) , 19–29.    doi:10.1037/a0031220  Chua, A. (2011). Battle hymn of the tiger mother . Bloomsbury publishing. Costigan, C. L., & Dokis, D. P. (2006). Relations between parent– child acculturation differences   and adjustment within immigrant Chinese families. Child Development , 77, 1252–1267.   doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2006 .00932.x Inman, A. G., Howard, E. E., Beaumont, R. L., & Walker, J. A. (2007). Cultural transmission:   Influence of contextual factors in Asian Indian immigrant parents’ experiences.  Journal   of Counseling Psychology , 54, 93–100. doi:10.1037/0022-0167.54.1.93   Kim, S. Y., Wang, Y., Orozco-Lapray, D., Shen, Y., & Murtuza, M. (2013). Does “tiger parenting”   exist? Parenting profiles of Chinese Americans and adolescent developmental   outcomes. Asian American Journal of Psychology, 4 (1) , 7–18.  doi:10.1037/a0030612    Sanvictores, T., & Mendez, M. D. (2021). Types of parenting styles and effects on children. Sutton, J. (2024, March 6). Authoritative parenting: Guiding with warmth and firmness .   PositivePsychology.com . https://positivepsychology.com/authoritative-parenting/   Rubin, K. H., & Chung, O. B. (Eds.). (2006). Parenting beliefs, behaviors, and parent– child   relations. New York, NY: Psychology Press. Wu, C., & Chao, R. K. (2011). Intergenerational cultural dissonance in parent and adolescent  relationships among Chinese and European Americans. Developmental Psychology, 47,  493–508. doi:10.1037/a0021063

By: M. Dawbin While bipolar disorder (BD) and epilepsy seem like separate conditions, they share similar symptoms, physical abnormalities, and treatments. In 2017, a Baylor University student found that specific variants of the ANK3 gene played a role in both disorders (Lopez et al., 2017). This common genetic material may be responsible for the alarmingly high comorbidity of epilepsy and mood disorders, specifically bipolar disorder. What’s more, it appears the association is bidirectional – BD is more common amongst people with epilepsy (PWE) than the general population, and bipolar individuals experience higher rates of epilepsy than the general population (Salpekar, 2017). Kindling Model of Progression The typical clinical progression of one disorder parallels the other, as evidenced by the kindling model of progression, developed by Graham Goddard in 1969, and its later applications. Studying epilepsy, Goddard’s team found that repetitive, daily exposure to a certain level of brain stimulation eventually induced seizures in rodent test subjects. While this level of stimulation wasn’t enough to invoke a seizure at the beginning of the experiment, repeated exposure lowered the seizure threshold (Goddard, 1969). In the years since, Robert M. Post has spent two and a half decades applying this principle to mood disorders. His work concludes that both seizures and mood episodes may become more severe, and more easily triggered, with consistent repetition - like reinforcing a habit (Post, 2007). To mitigate the progression of either disorder, both in severity and frequency, seizures and mood-related symptoms should be treated as early and efficiently as possible. Overlap of Symptoms Though the diagnostic criteria for each disorder are strikingly dissimilar, people with one or the other may share some similar symptoms. Specifically, a study from 1985 compared 44 people with mood disorders (most of which had BD without a history of seizures) and 37 people diagnosed with complex partial seizures; common symptoms between the two groups were jumbled thoughts, increased sensitivity to sound and color, and olfactory hallucinations (Silberman, et al., 1985). It’s unclear whether these symptoms are related to specific mood states in affective disorders. Likewise, the study didn’t determine whether these symptoms were present in the preictal (before seizure) period, ictal (during seizure) period, postictal (after seizure) period, or interictal period (times of remission between seizures). Since epilepsy and BD both tend to appear in marked episodes, these similar symptoms may be caused by similar pathological mechanisms. More research on this subject could be useful to further understand the link between mood states and seizures. Though it’s not a primary feature of the disorder – that is to say, not a clinical sign of BD – some patients with BD demonstrate EEG abnormalities, with some even displaying epileptiform waves. The aforementioned study, completed by Silberman et al. (1985), reported “diffuse, non-specific changes” on some of the EEGs performed on those in the affective illness group. In a 1988 study, “bitemporal paroxysmal epileptiform waves” were found in the 3 participants with the most frequent mood switching, suggesting that a rapid cycling course of illness is more likely to cause seizure activity (Levy et al., 1988). Unfortunately, due to the small sample size and limitations in the design, the results of Levy’s study were largely inconclusive and may not be replicable. More recently, in 1997, JG Small and her colleagues performed EEGs on 202 patients hospitalized for mania. 5% of these patients had epileptiform waves and 12% had “other sharp activity”. This is consistent with the result of a recent study of BD II patients in Norway – the authors found that 14% had epileptiform waves or other sharp activity (Drange, et al. 2020). Royal Air Force candidates are screened for seizure activity to ensure the safety of the pilots. If their data can serve as a control group, the expected occurrence in the general population would be 0.5% (Gregory et al., 1993).  Comorbidity  Well-established since the time of Hippocrates, the association between epilepsy and depressed states is hardly a new phenomenon. A recent conceptual development, however, is the possibility that one disorder may increase the individual’s risk for the other (Josephson et al., 2017; Salpekar, 2017). In some people with both disorders, mood/affective symptoms appear first. In others, seizure activity appears first. Regardless of whether or not the etiology of one disorder can influence the development of the other, researchers have demonstrated that the relationship between the two disorders is bidirectional, as previously discussed.  A study by Forty et al. in 2014 compared the risk of certain ‘physical’ illnesses in a bipolar group, a unipolar depressive group, and a control group. The occurrence rate of epilepsy among people with depression was 3.8 times higher than in the control group. The rate of epilepsy among people with BD was 6.19 times higher than expected – a staggering difference. It is possible that the over Another interesting finding from the study revealed that a history of rapid cycling presentation in bipolar (experiencing four or more mood episodes a year) was significantly correlated with multiple medical illnesses.  Forty et al.’s final findings highlighted that electroconvulsive therapy (generally reserved for severe or treatment-resistant cases of mood disorder due to potentially debilitating side effects) was correlated with a higher burden of medical illness (2014). Unfortunately, as with many treatments for BD, it’s unclear whether these risks are increased due to the etiological harms of the disorder itself, or if they may be an unintended consequence of the treatment. Further research will be needed to clarify this lack of information. Additionally, inconsistent methods and varying screening tools employed by studies in this area create results that are, at times, conflicting and unreliable. Regardless, controlled studies consistently demonstrate an increased rate of depression among PWE (Weatherburn et al., 2016; Kanner, 2003). A relevant concern is that depressive symptoms and disorders among epilepsy patients may be underrecognized and undertreated. In a 2003 article, Andres M. Kanner specified that 70% of patients involved in their study had a presentation “akin to dysthymic disorder”. However, the symptoms were interrupted with brief periods of remission – barring them from a formally diagnosed depressive disorder. A harrowing 60 of the 97 patients had exhibited depression symptoms for over a year. Further, only 33% were treated within 6 months of symptom onset – a figure that did not change depending on the severity of the depression (Kanner, 2003). Shared Precipitating Factors Emmanuelle Bostock et al.’s detailed 2015 literature review examined factors that might contribute to both manic episodes and partial seizures. Of the factors included, the authors found that increased stress, menstruation, and experiencing a loss of sleep could trigger mood episodes and seizures. Stress, in particular, is a common contributing factor to psychiatric illness. Even positive stressors and eustress were found to cause mania – including at times of goal attainment. Similarly, the authors of the article quoted a study where PWE recorded a seizure diary that included their level of stress for the day. A one-point increase on the scale was correlated with seizure occurrence (Haut et al., 2007 as cited in Bostock et al., 2015). In regards to sleep, a decreased need for sleep is a key symptom of mania, but sleep deprivation also can trigger it. A study of depressed patients with BD found that 7 out of 67 patients switched to (hypo)mania after 40 hours of sleep deprivation (Wehr, 1982 as cited by Bostock et al, 2015). In other studies, sleep reduction was found to be a predictor of mania (Leibenluft et al., 1996 as cited by Bostock et al., 2015). Similarly, sleep reduction is a commonly reported seizure trigger, and seizures diminish the individual’s quality of sleep. Bostock et al. noted that these similarities between the disorders may be due to shared pathological mechanisms between BD and epilepsy. Similar Pathophysiology Serotonin/Norepinephrine Transmission Genetically Epilepsy-Prone Rats (GEPRs), which exhibit both seizure and mood disorders in a manner analogous to humans, are often utilized to study BD And epilepsy. A deficit in serotonin and norepinephrine transmission, often found in GEPRs, is theorized to play a role in the expression of these disorders both in humans and rats (Jobe, 2003). Low serotonin concentration has a long-established history in the literature as a potential cause of depression. Based on this information,  data selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) were developed; increasing serotonin concentration by reducing the reuptake of serotonin, which leaves serotonin molecules underutilized. SSRIs continue to be a first-line treatment of depression (Brown et al., 1982). In an experiment, Quintin et al. examined the effects of acute tryptophan depletion. As a precursor to serotonin, tryptophan is vital for serotonin synthesis. While the control group was largely unaffected, a group of non-bipolar participants (having first-degree bipolar relatives) experienced diminished cognitive performance, suggesting that low serotonin concentrations may be a factor in the development of mood disorders and their subsequent cognitive effects (Quintin et al., 2001). Norepinephrine levels also play a role in both disorders. 𝜶-methyl-𝒑-tyrosine, a substance that inhibits norepinephrine synthesis, increases seizures in rats. In humans, the substance also contributes to depressive episodes in people with BD who were formerly in remission (Jobe, 2003). As a whole, this information suggests that serotonin and norepinephrine transmission may play a role in the pathophysiology of BD and epilepsy. Gamma-aminobutyric Acid/Glutamate Transmission Research suggests that gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and glutamate imbalance may also play a role in BD and epilepsy. Data suggests that deficient GABA transmission and excessive amounts of glutamate contribute to epilepsy (Jobe, 2003). In an experiment, reduced GABA transmission caused audiogenic (resulting from auditory stimulation) seizures in animals that were otherwise normal (Faingold, 2002). Insufficient GABA transmission was present across multiple brain regions in a study of individuals with major depressive disorder (Kanner, 2011). While medications that increase GABA seem to have little to no antidepressant effects, glutamatergic drugs appear to be more effective (Kanner, 2011). Common Regions/Structures BD and epilepsy share similar structural abnormalities. Imaging studies involving patients with BD have shown reduced white matter in the thalamic region (Barysheva et al., 2013). A review of structural abnormalities among epilepsy patients discussed significant structural compromise in the thalamus – a change present in every type of epilepsy (Whelan et al., 2018). The mesial temporal lobe is often involved in temporal lobe epilepsy, frequently including hippocampal atrophy (Kanner, 2009). Hippocampal atrophy has also been demonstrated in patients with depression, and the length of depression may be correlated with the reduction in hippocampal volume (Bell-McGinty et al., 2002; Posener et al., 2003). Relevant Treatments Based on the similarities in pathophysiology, it’s unsurprising that some anticonvulsants can be potent mood stabilizers: carbamazepine, lamotrigine, and valproate have been found to increase monoamine transmission, which contributes to their mood-stabilizing effects (Yan et al., 1992). Antidepressants carry a risk of inducing mania or rapid cycling, but when used in combination with a mood stabilizer or antipsychotic, antidepressants may alleviate depressive symptoms in people with BD. Comparatively, there is some degree of risk that antidepressants can cause seizures. However, these risks appear minimal, and recent reviews of the literature suggest antidepressant medications are generally safe and well-tolerated among people with adequately treated epilepsy. Seizures are more associated with serum level toxicity (Rosenstein et al., 1993; Kanner, 2016). An additional form of treatment available for BD and major depression is electroconvulsive therapy (ECT). The practice involves therapeutically inducing a generalized seizure through electrical stimulation. In an article, the authors found that the seizure threshold was lower in manic patients than in depressed patients. While this procedure tends to be effective – the review found that it resulted in significant improvement of manic episodes in 80% of patients – it can have devastating side effects including severe memory loss (Mukherjee et al., 1994). In sum, there is a significant degree of overlap between BD and epilepsy, particularly in their afflicted populations, pathologies, and triggers. Based on similarities in pathology, future studies – especially ones including children and early signs – about BD and epilepsy could inform how to treat and even prevent the shared symptoms (Salpekar, 2017). Further research would mean an increased understanding of the course and development of each disorder, helping clinicians improve the quality of life of their patients. Works Cited: Barysheva, M., Jahanshad, N., Foland-Ross, L., Altshuler, L. L., & Thompson, P. M. (2013). White matter microstructural abnormalities in bipolar disorder: A whole brain diffusion tensor imaging study. NeuroImage: Clinical, 2, 558–568. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nicl.2013.03.016 Bell-McGinty, S., Butters, M. A., Meltzer, C. C., Greer, P. J., Reynolds, C. F., & Becker, J. T. (2002). Brain morphometric abnormalities in geriatric depression: Long-term neurobiological effects of illness duration. American Journal of Psychiatry, 159(8), 1424–1427. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.159.8.1424 Bostock, E. C. S., Kirkby, K. C., Garry, M. I., & Taylor, B. V. M. (2015). Comparison of precipitating factors for mania and partial seizures: Indicative of shared pathophysiology? Journal of Affective Disorders, 183, 57–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2015.04.057 Brown, G. L., Ebert, M. H., & Goyer, P. F. (1982). Aggression, suicide, and serotonin: Relationships to CSF amine metabolites. 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Y., Wang, X., Xu, M., Maheshwari, A., Curry, D., Lam, S., Adesina, A. M., Noebels, J. L., Sun, Q.-Q., & Cooper, E. C. (2017). Ankyrin-G isoform imbalance and interneuronopathy link epilepsy and bipolar disorder. Molecular Psychiatry, 22(10), 1464–1472. https://doi.org/10.1038/mp.2016.233 Posener, J. A., Wang, L., Price, J. L., Gado, M. H., Province, M. A., Miller, M. I., Babb, C. M., & Csernansky, J. G. (2003). High-dimensional mapping of the hippocampus in depression. American Journal of Psychiatry, 160(1), 83–89. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.160.1.83 Post, R. M. (2007). Kindling and sensitization as models for affective episode recurrence, cyclicity, and tolerance phenomena. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 31(6), 858–873. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2007.04.003 Quintin, P., Benkelfat, C., Launay, J. M., Arnulf, I., Pointereau-Bellenger, A., Barbault, S., Alvarez, J. C., Varoquaux, O., Perez-Diaz, F., Jouvent, R., & Leboyer, M. (2001). Clinical and neurochemical effect of acute tryptophan depletion in unaffected relatives of patients with bipolar affective disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 50(3), 184–190. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0006-3223(01)01140-4 Rosenstein, D. L., Nelson, J. C., & Jacobs, S. C. (1993). Seizures associated with antidepressants: A review. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 54(8), 289–299. Salpekar, J. (2017). Depression and epilepsy: We are no longer one direction. Epilepsy Currents, 17(4), 223–224. https://doi.org/10.5698/1535-7597.17.4.223 Silberman, E. K., Post, R. M., Nurnberger, J., Theodore, W., & Boulenger, J.-P. (1985). Transient sensory, cognitive and affective phenomena in affective illness: A comparison with complex partial epilepsy. British Journal of Psychiatry, 146(1), 81–89. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.146.1.81 Weatherburn, C. J., Heath, C. A., Mercer, S. W., & Guthrie, B. (2017). Physical and mental health comorbidities of epilepsy: Population-based cross-sectional analysis of 1.5 million people in Scotland. Seizure, 45, 125–131. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seizure.2016.11.013 Whelan, C. D., Altmann, A., Botía, J. A., Jahanshad, N., Hibar, D. P., Absil, J., Alhusaini, S., Alvim, M. K. M., Auvinen, P., Bartolini, E., Bergo, F. P. G., Bernardes, T., Blackmon, K., Braga, B., Caligiuri, M. E., Calvo, A., Carr, S. J., Chen, J., Chen, S., … Sisodiya, S. M. (2018). Structural brain abnormalities in the common epilepsies assessed in a worldwide ENIGMA study. Brain, 141(2), 391–408. https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/awx341 Yan, Q. S., Mishra, P. K., Burger, R. L., Bettendorf, A. F., Jobe, P. C., & Dailey, J. W. (1992). Evidence that carbamazepine and antiepilepsirine may produce a component of their anticonvulsant effects by activating serotonergic neurons in genetically epilepsy-prone rats. The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, 261(2), 652–659.

By Alessandra Soto In the Latino/Hispanic Community, many move to the United States to find financial independence and stability. Due to prioritizing socioeconomic status there is a creation of tunnel vision when migrating, which lacks planning for issues beyond finance. Therefore, the focus of this article is analyzing cognitive performance, specifically related to the Latino/Hispanic Community.Current research doesn’t focus on these issues in the Latino/Hispanic community, therefore there is a limited number of studies. Looking into other studies that focus on the majorities, such as White Americans, there can be a generalized idea of how that can be applied to other ethnicities or races. Despite this, researching different factors within different communities based on their internal state and environment can indicate fluctuations in cognitive performance. These differences are crucial because they can serve as meaningful indicators of real-world function and future trajectory ( Weizenbaum et al., 2020). Cognitive performance refers to how well the brain works when it comes to an individual's memory, attention, language skills, problem solving, and learning (Harvey, 2019). It is important for the Latino/Hispanic Community to be aware of how important it is to focus on their brain health. Not only is this for their well-being, but also for the purpose of achieving their goals after migration. The Latino/Hispanic community is known as a collective culture, therefore remembering birthdays, doing tasks for others, and saving money are big parts of their lives; which all rely on their cognitive performance... Additionally, many work long hours and hard jobs (housekeeping, landscaping, construction, etc…), therefore having a healthy brain and healthy body is vital for their survival. There are many factors that can affect cognitive performance such as stress management and staying mentally active, but one  factor that is currently building up research is how sleep can affect cognitive performance.  Many have experienced how sleep can make us feel. For instance, when we sleep short hours before working a long shift, it can negatively affect our overall performance. However, a brief article I came across grabbed my attention. The article, “Too Much Sleep Increases Cognitive Decline in Latino Communities,” discusses how sleeping over 9 hours can increase cognitive decline. According to Dr. Ramos, the study they conducted identified that longer sleep correlates to neurocognitive decline that can later on develop dementia. This  provided a target of early intervention to prevent the disease in Latinos, who are identified as a high-risk group (2020). Reading this article, I was surprised to discover a new finding affecting cognitive performance. At first, it made sense that little sleep can affect overall performance, whereas longer hours of sleep just tend to happen when you’re super tired.  Another study that was analyzed., thoroughly examined connections between genetic factors influencing various aspects of sleep and cognitive aging outcomes in a sizable Hispanic/Latino population (Zhang et al.). Their findings indicate that genetic factors related to insomnia, daytime sleepiness, and sleep duration are linked to an increased risk of mild cognitive impairment (MCI). They also observed that there is an interaction effect between genetic predisposition and self-reported sleep duration on MCI risk (2022).  This topic also highlights how the combination of different factors  can impact one thing, such as genetics, age, and sleep quality and quantity.. According to Hokett & Duarte, insufficient sleep has been linked to poorer memory outcomes in minoritized racial and ethnic groups. However, there are other factors many minority groups face that can impact their quality of life and sleep, such as racism-related stress and social determinants of health (2024).  Focusing on the study conducted by Ramos et al., the methods were broken up into population, neurocognitive function and score analysis, main exposures: questionnaires, cardiovascular risk factors, covariates, and statistical analyses. This cohort study gathered an initial sample of 16,145 Hispanic/Latinos aged 18-74 years. They were based in four US field centers: Chicago, IL; Miami, FL; Bronx, NY; San Diego, CA. Their method was to look at basic SDB, daytime sleepiness, insomnia, and sleep duration. SDB refers to sleep-disordered breathing, the symptoms include snoring and witnessed apnea.  They wanted to see how these factors affected changes in episodic learning and memory, language skills, processing speed, and cognitive impairment. The study included different Hipanics/Latinos from Central America, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Mexican, Puerto Rico, and others from South America that are living in the United States. This was a 7 year study where they used questionnaires, tests, and self reports in order to pick up results. This all included their sleep time and behaviors, their verbal learning and memory, mental status, and intelligence (2020). The baseline evaluation gathered each participant's information on sleep disorders, demographics, socioeconomic status, lifestyle habits (smoking, physical activities), medical history, and biological measures (anthropometrics, blood draw, oral glucose tolerance tests, among others). They continued with an ancillary study designed to examine the prevalence and determinants of neurocognitive decline and disorders. They introduced new neuropsychological tests. This new test was conducted by being a multistage sampling strategy with stratification and clustering, and probability weights that account for nonresponse and attrition. The authors of this research conducted a systematic review with literature on PubMed using MeSH terms, “sleep”, “cognition”, and “prospective studies.” They reviewed 146 studies and focused on four relevant studies for focus. Based on the previous studies they reviewed, they interpreted for their own conducting study that important sleep correlates of neurocognitive decline. The studies had different populations and focused, therefore they redirected and added quantifying the role of sleep disorders and cerebrovascular disease as a pathway to neurocognitive decline. Perform genetic studies that can clarify casual associations with neurocognitive decline. The baseline exams included the Six-Item Screener (SIS; mental status), Spanish English Verbal Learning Test (SEVLT; verbal episodic learning and memory); Controlled Oral Word Association (word/verbal fluency) Test of the Multilingual Aphasia Examination; and Digit Symbol Subtest (DSS; processing speed) of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Revised. For them to evaluate cognitive decline, they also repeated the neurocognitive battery when the participants came for the second visit and administered the Trail Making Test parts A and B. The questionnaires focus on sleep habits that happen constantly during bedtime, wake time, and nap time. The questions asked were: What time do you usually go to bed? What time do you usually wake up? And average sleep duration? They broke down the sleep duration from short (<6 hours), intermediate (6-9 hours), and long (>9 hours). The scale they used and translated to the Spanish Version for their targeted participants, which was the Epworth Sleepiness Scale (ESS). This scale assesses whether the individual is likely to fall asleep based on eight common situations.  Information about SDB was collected using ARES Unicorder 5.2 The sleep records were scored at the Sleep Reading Center. For the Cardiovascular risk factors, they used the Global Vascular Risk Score (GVRS) and individual risk factors. This score is used to predict 10-year risk of a stroke and other related events, the information collected includes ethnicity/race, waist circumference, health behaviors, and peripheral vascular disease. Depending on the scores, if the GRVS value of 8.2 indicated a 10% chance for remaining free of stroke, and infarction, or any other vascular impact over a 10-year period.  The covariates include age (measured at baseline), time lapse between sleep assessment and second visit measured in days, depressive symptoms using the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale, and self-reports for sleep medication before the study was conducted.  Based on the table, the analysis and statistical outcomes were provided by using z-scores for the cognitive outcomes in order to do a comparison of the estimated associations across tests. Based on the cognitive performance at SOL-INCA was examined using survey linear regression models to independently test the associations between each sleep risk factor and standardized cognitive outcomes in both cross-sectional and prospective analyses. For each outcome, two regression models were fitted. The first model tested sex, age, and education and the time lapse between sleep assessment and second visit, while the second model, used baseline GVRS, depression symptoms, reported frequency of sleep medication, and field center. Change scores for repeated cognitive tests were then calculated using survey linear regression to predict cognitive performance, adjusted for age, education, and the lapsed time between cognitive assessments.   After the study was completed, the next aim was to analyze the experimental data  to find patterns and other results away from the primary objective. Analysis of variance-based contrasts was used to test differences between sleep risk groups, providing estimates of marginal differences and their 95% confidence intervals for cognitive performance and cognitive change.  As highlighted by several researchers in their articles, there is an emphasis on research on minority groups. The Hispanic/Latino community face many of their own issues as immigrants compared to the predominant groups in the United States. Many within this community do not speak English, leading to a significant barrier in accessing and sharing information. It is crucial to raise awareness and address the existing barriers in obtaining information within this community. For instance , when analyzing  research about different ethnic and racial groups, there is going to be a long list of factors that can affect the outcome. Some examples include   cultural beliefs about aging and cognitive health, how researchers can use their effective communication strategies for minority groups to be informed, and even the different stigmatizations existing within ethnic or racial groups. This means there needs to be an understanding that seeking medical help is a sign of strength, not weakness. Also, resources in Spanish such as pamphlets and videos are a necessity so that patients can immediately understand what is happening. These are short and direct solutions that  take a short amount of time and yield quick results.. However, as there is more research on this topic there can be a more collective understanding on issues involving the brain in the Latino/Hispanic community and better change initiatives.. Cognitive performance can be affected by many things, but all individuals will have their own extent of how it can be resolved, therefore further research is important. References: Harvey P. D. (2019). Domains of cognition and their assessment
. Dialogues in clinical neuroscience , 21 (3), 227–237. https://doi.org/10.31887/DCNS.2019.21.3/pharvey Hokett, E., Duarte, A. A Review of Racial and Ethnic Differences in Sleep-memory Associations and the Potential Contributions of Social Determinants of Sleep. Curr Sleep Medicine Rep  10, 62–69 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40675-024-00281-0 Ramos W, Wu B, Redline S, et al. Sleep and neurocognitive decline in the Hispanic Community Health Study/Study of Latinos. Alzheimer's Dement . 2020; 16: 305–315. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jalz.2019.08.191 Zhang, Y., Elgart, M., Granot-Hershkovitz, E., Wang, H., Tarraf, W., Ramos, A. R., Stickel, A. M., Zeng, D., Garcia, T. P., Testai, F. D., Wassertheil-Smoller, S., Isasi, C. R., Daviglus, M. L., Kaplan, R., Fornage, M., DeCarli, C., Redline, S., González, H. M., & Sofer, T. (2023). Genetic associations between sleep traits and cognitive ageing outcomes in the Hispanic Community Health Study/Study of Latinos. EBioMedicine , 87 , 104393. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ebiom.2022.104393

Written by: Jacinda Taggett Oftentimes when an individual encounters a rewarding situation, such as getting take-out food after a long week of working, their brain releases a chemical called dopamine . Dopamine is commonly known as the “pleasure chemical” of the brain, as it leads to feelings of motivation and satisfaction.  However, there are other purposes for this chemical, such as movement and learning. Learning that is associative (e.g., making connections) or involving rewards are best correlated with dopamine (Sharpe et al., 2017; Vrieze et al., 2013). Although most research done on dopamine and learning are conducted in rodent studies, we can look at how these findings can relate to clinical populations, such as Parkinson’s Disease and Schizophrenia, which both face cognitive deficits as a symptom of their disorders. Schizophrenia: Dopamine Imbalances and Learning Deficits When dopamine is unbalanced in the brain, neuropsychological symptoms arise. In the case of schizophrenia patients, their irregular amounts of dopamine can lead to various symptoms, such as hallucinations (too much dopamine in some parts of the brain) and lack of enjoyment (too little dopamine in other parts). In the situation of too much dopamine, this leads to what neuropsychologists call positive symptoms , and negative symptoms  are when there is too little dopamine. If we consider the literature suggesting that dopamine is responsible for certain aspects of learning, we can question whether dopamine also plays a role in cognitive deficits that are included in the schizophrenic population. If there is an association between dopamine and learning in this clinical population, we can then think about potential treatments to preserve cognitive function. Research studies have shown that reward learning is impaired in individuals with schizophrenia, which has been seen in both human patients (Abohamza et al., 2020) and rodent models (Higa et al., 2017). Specifically, in a study by Cheng et al. (2022), schizophrenic individuals were seen with lower accuracy in a learning task with reward context although other forms of cognition such as personal reward valuation remained constant. Connecting Dopamine and Learning in Schizophrenia To further connect the dopaminergic explanation for learning in schizophrenia, a neuroimaging study from Sheffield et al. (2018) assessed dopamine activation in the brain during associative learning tasks. They found that these patients not only had deficits in cognitive outcomes (i.e., reaction time and accuracy in the tasks), but also had decreased dopamine activation from the parts of the brain responsible for receiving dopamine, the striatum  and, more specifically, the caudate . The striatum is a brain region known for its role in movement, reward processing, and learning, with the caudate being a subregion. Atypical antipsychotics, which are a common treatment for schizophrenia, are medications that primarily affect dopamine (and another chemical called serotonin ), leading to more natural dopamine in the brain. In the literature, this form of medication has been seen to be a more effective treatment for cognitive deficits in schizophrenia. For example, in a study by Insel et al. (2014), when the dose of atypical antipsychotics were increased during a learning task in which the participants were “winning”, schizophrenic individuals had better learning rates. These findings indicate that reward plays an important role for learning in these individuals, especially considering their treatment plans. Future Directions Understanding whether dopamine has an impact on cognition for schizophrenic individuals is essential. Given that the onset of this disorder begins during college years (i.e., 18 to 25 years of age), more research needs to be done to ensure that learning can be repaired for these individuals while also minimizing their psychotic symptoms.  Future studies should look into observing these relationships on a molecular level by working with rodent models to provide a neuroscientific basis for psychological research in human patients. This research also needs to be applicable to real-world and educational environments since associative and reward learning is the main research focus in dopaminergic studies. Additionally, more studies need to be done on schizophrenic patients currently experiencing symptoms of psychosis, such as hallucinations or delusions, so we can accurately provide treatment to potential college students during their most debilitating moments. Although the ethical and conventional approaches to this are limited, it would be more applicable to real-world scenarios. Until these questions are answered, only then can we strive for treatments that will allow schizophrenic individuals to succeed academically and achieve their goals. References Abohamza, E., Weickert, T., Ali, M., & Moustafa, A. A. (2020). Reward and punishment learning in schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. Behavioural Brain Research , 381, 8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbr.2019.112298 Cheng, X., Wang, L., Lv, Q., Wu, H., Huang, X., Yuan, J., Sun, X., Zhao, X., Yan, C., & Yi, Z. (2022). Reduced learning bias towards the reward context in medication-naive first-episode schizophrenia patients. BMC Psychiatry , 22, 10. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-021-03682-5 Higa, K. K., Young, J. W., Ji, B., Nichols, D. E., Geyer, M. A., & Zhou, X. (2017, April). Striatal dopamine D1 receptor suppression impairs reward-associative learning. Behavioural Brain Research , 323, 100–110. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbr.2017.01.041 Insel, C., Reinen, J., Weber, J., Wager, T. D., Jarskog, L. F., Shohamy, D., & Smith, E. E. (2014). Antipsychotic dose modulates behavioral and neural responses to feedback during reinforcement learning in schizophrenia. Cognitive, Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience , 14(1), 189-201. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13415-014-0261-3 Sharpe, M., Chang, C., Liu, M. et al. (2017). Dopamine transients are sufficient and necessary for acquisition of model-based associations. Nat Neurosci  20, 735–742. https://doi.org/10.1038/nn.4538 Sheffield, J. M., Ruge, H., Kandala, S., & Barch, D. M. (2018). Rapid instruction-based task learning (RITL) in schizophrenia. Journal of Abnormal Psychology , 127(5), 513-528. https://doi.org/10.1037/abn0000354 Vrieze, E., Ceccarini, J., Pizzagalli, D. A., Bormans, G., Vandenbulcke, M., Demyttenaere, K., Van Laere, K., & Claes, S. (2013). Measuring extrastriatal dopamine release during a reward learning task. Human brain mapping , 34(3), 575–586. https://doi.org/10.1002/hbm.21456

By Ethan Messier Introduction An epileptic seizure can take many frightening forms. Symptoms of a seizure can vary dramatically, from violent jerking of the limbs to a loss of awareness characterized by a blank stare. For Jayce, an otherwise healthy toddler in Florida, his first seizure presented itself in a peculiar manner, with his head leaning forward and shoulders tensed up. Over the following months, Jayce’s mother noticed that he seemed to be having these episodes more often, each time characterized by a stiffening of his body. Though he did not exhibit the dramatic shaking and convulsions one typically associates with a seizure, Jayce was diagnosed with infantile spasms, a subset of epilepsy (Johns Hopkins Medicine). A Michigan dietician, Samantha Barash, shares her story of battling an eating disorder. After developing a fixation with food in 8th grade, Barash began extreme dieting and food restriction. She recalls the fixation spiraling into a mental illness, “You come into this with a fascination with food and then you start to truly think food is the most important thing in the world” (Richardson & Sousanis, 2024). According to ANAD, the National Association of Anorexia Nervosa and Associated Disorders, 28.8 million Americans will have an eating disorder in their lifetime. Every 52 minutes, someone in the United States dies as a direct result of an eating disorder (ANAD).  Though epilepsy and eating disorders may seem to have little in common, the overlap and intersection of the two disease groups is a fascinating topic of recent medical interest. In current medical literature, physicians and scientists are investigating the link between these two diseases, particularly in young people. The Correlation According to the Cleveland Clinic, a comorbidity is defined as a medical condition that occurs simultaneously alongside a “primary diagnosis”. A disease process can be associated with one or more comorbidities. Often, in the context of epilepsy and eating disorders, eating disorders are considered an increasingly common comorbidity in patients with epilepsy as the primary diagnosis. The breadth of research in this area focuses on adolescents, where the correlation between the two diseases is distinctly pronounced.  In a longitudinal study of nearly 400 patients who visited Boston clinics and hospitals over the course of a decade noted that “EDs (eating disorders) occur at higher rates in female and male adolescents with epilepsy… compared to a large sample of adolescents seen in clinics in the same medical center” (Latzer, et al, 2023). The data from this study showed that there is a marked difference in the presence of eating disorders in epilepsy patients than in patients without a seizure disorder. This data was not exclusive to a specific type of seizure or any specific eating disorder and included those being treated at the clinic for anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and binge eating disorder. Though correlation must not be erroneously inferred to indicate causation, the same study provides potential explanations for the commonality of eating disorders as a comorbidity in epilepsy patients. The study touches on eating disorder research, which often attributes environmental stressors and societal influence as common triggers in eating disorder patients. In epilepsy patients, frequent visits to medical facilities, intense drug therapy, and the social impact of living with a seizure disorder are believed to bring about negative self image and body dissatisfaction, a key contributor to the development of an eating disorder (Latzer, et al, 2023). Mice: Opening the Door for a Biochemical Investigation A study from the University of California, San Francisco, takes a unique approach to investigate the link between seizure disorders and disordered eating: rodents. Scientists aimed to investigate the link between a neurotransmitter called serotonin (known chemically as 5-HT) and the processes of the nervous system in mice. Put simply, a neurotransmitter works by sending a message throughout the brain that activates a process within the rest of the body. A chemical binds to a receptor on a brain cell, triggering a response. Using genetic engineering, researchers were able to produce mutant mice that lacked the receptors needed for serotonin to perform its normal functions throughout the brain and body. The study showed that mutant mice who lacked serotonin receptors exhibited “abnormal control of feeding behavior” (Tecott et al, 1995). These mice were also more prone to spontaneous seizures. Though this study focuses specifically on mice, it opens the door for an investigation into a potential molecular explanation for the correlation between seizures and eating disorders. A Multi-Purpose Drug One final intersection between epilepsy and eating disorders worth investigating is the unique ability for anti-epileptic drugs to be used as an effective treatment for eating disorders. A collaborative study authored by Boston and Ohio scientists notes that one drug commonly prescribed for epilepsy management, topiramate, “appears to have the broadest spectrum of action as an anti-binge eating, anti-purging and weight loss agent” (McElroy et al, 2009). The study provides several suggestions as to why some anti-epileptic drugs (AEDs) prove to be useful in treating eating disorders. Most notably, AEDs typically have broad molecular targets within the brain, and have been used for decades to treat other mental illnesses like anxiety and bipolar disorder, which are common comorbidities in eating disorder patients. Additionally, many AEDs have distinct side effects on body weight. Physicians have recommended prescribing AEDs with weight loss side effects in patients with eating disorders who binge eat or are overweight, and those with the opposite effect for patients with anorexia nervosa who are underweight  (McElroy et al, 2009). Looking Forward Though scientists have made great strides in understanding the correlation between epilepsy and eating disorders, there is still so much to be uncovered about the true cause for this overlap. Furthermore, there is much progress yet to be made in the treatments for both groups of diseases individually. There is no known cure for epilepsy, and up to 30% of epilepsy patients are unable to manage their seizures with the best methods currently available. While eating disorder patients often make a successful recovery, every patient is different, and there is no “miracle cure”. The intersection between these two diseases is fascinating, and of great personal importance to me. I look forward to a day where the link between EDs and epilepsy is well understood, and this is surely a niche of neuroscience research I will be keeping a keen eye on. References  Tokatly Latzer, I., Richmond, T. K., Zhang, B., & Pearl, P. L. (2023). Eating disorders occur at high rates in adolescents with epilepsy and are associated with psychiatric comorbidities and suicidality. Epilepsia, 64(11), 2982–2992. https://doi.org/10.1111/epi.17759 Tecott, L. H., Sun, L. M., Akana, S. F., Strack, A. M., Lowenstein, D. H., Dallman, M. F., & Julius, D. (1995). Eating disorder and epilepsy in mice lacking 5-HT2c serotonin receptors. Nature, 374(6522), 542–546. https://doi.org/10.1038/374542a0 McElroy, S. L., Guerdjikova, A. I., Martens, B., Keck, P. E., Jr, Pope, H. G., & Hudson, J. I. (2009). Role of antiepileptic drugs in the management of eating disorders. CNS drugs, 23(2), 139–156. https://doi.org/10.2165/00023210-200923020-00004 Epilepsy: Jayce’s story . Johns Hopkins Medicine. (n.d.). https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/conditions-and-diseases/epilepsy/epilepsy-syndromes-in-children/patient-story-jayce C. C. medical. (n.d.). What are comorbidities? . Cleveland Clinic. https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/articles/comorbidities Richardson, A., & Sousanis, A. (2024). “all we hear about are the diets.” starving, gorging, fighting to heal amid eating disorders . USA Today. https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/health/2024/04/06/eating-disorder-recovery-stories/73103691007/  Eating disorder statistics: ANAD - National Association of Anorexia Nervosa and associated disorders . ANAD National Association of Anorexia Nervosa and Associated Disorders. (2024, April 3). https://anad.org/eating-disorder-statistic/

Desiree Lano Introduction There’s no denying it: Schizophrenia (SZ) is one of the most misunderstood psychiatric illnesses in our society. Most have had little exposure to it outside of sensationalized media, which often perpetuates it as something to be afraid of. Those with psychiatric illnesses, however, are more likely to be a victim of violence rather than a perpetrator (Ghiasi et al., 2023). In general, society has made adequate progress towards destigmatizing more common mental illnesses, but severe disorders (e.g., bipolar disorder and SZ) have been left out of the equation. Using biology, we can begin to demystify what seems frightening, and help push society towards a truly destigmatized view of mental illness. SZ is a highly complex disorder, with environmental and biological interactions contributing to the manifestation of distressing symptoms. This article will focus on the biological contributions, but it is important to keep in  mind that these mechanisms do not act alone. Signs and Symptoms of Schizophrenia Signs and symptoms of SZ go beyond hallucinations and are often lumped into three categories: positive, negative, and cognitive symptoms (Klein et al., 2018). Positive symptoms include hallucinations, delusions, loose associations/lack of logical flow of thoughts, disorganized speech, and odd mannerisms. Negative symptoms can consist of blunt affect, catatonia, anhedonia, social isolation, and problems keeping up with activities of daily living. Cognitive symptoms include issues with learning, memory, and executive functioning (McCutcheon et al., 2020). These signs and symptoms just scratch the surface–beyond the clinical criteria, the subjective experience and outward manifestations of SZ are no doubt a frightening experience and cannot be understated. Cellular/Molecular Mechanisms Genetics SZ is a polygenic (i.e., multiple genes contributing rather than a single deterministic gene) disorder with a heritability range of 65-85%. Almost 100 genes have been theorized to contribute to the development of SZ. A major area of interest in SZ research revolves around copy number variations (CNVs). Copy number variations are modifications of small sections of DNA, which can have effects ranging from small to unnoticed to life-threatening (Marshall et al., 2016). A significantly greater amount of rare shortened CNVs have been found in those with SZ using genome-wide studies. It is thought that CNVs contribute to at least 10% of the risk of developing SZ (Zigmond et al., 2023). Dopamine Dysregulation A number of neurotransmitters (molecules that carry “messages” between neurons) have been implicated in the dysfunction of cellular communication in those with SZ. A proposed culprit  in SZ is one often touted as the “feel-good” chemical: dopamine. Dopamine’s role in the nervous system goes beyond feeling good; it is involved in a multitude of processes in the nervous system, both healthy and diseased. Its involvement in our brain’s “reward system” is familiar to most, but it also modulates movement/motor control, arousal, sleep, attention, affect, cognition, reproductive/maternal behaviors…the list goes on (Klein et al., 2018).  Suffice it to say that dopamine is more than just a feel good molecule–we need it to stay alive and well. Our need for this molecular messenger runs the gamut, from seeking out food, to keeping ourselves satiated, to making purposeful and fluid movements. Dopamine has a particular modus operandi when it comes to SZ. While in the healthy brain dopamine shines the spotlight on important information we should be focusing on, it seems to extend its range to unimportant stimuli in the brain of those with SZ. This often manifests in delusional symptoms for those with SZ, attributing mundane occurrences to an infallible belief of being persecuted or receiving important messages via songs, tv, etc. Zooming in at the molecular level, brains of those with SZ have been found to have a higher density of D2 dopamine receptors compared to healthy controls (Klein et al., 2018). Interestingly enough, it has been found that D1 dopamine receptors have lower  expression in those with SZ, particularly in the prefrontal cortex. This has been proposed to contribute to some of the cognitive deficits associated with SZ.  Reduced Dendritic Spine Density, Plasticity, and Arborization Dendrites are the “receiving end” of our neurons– these branchlike outgrowths house receptors which receive neurotransmitters via little packets called vesicles. These “receiving” portions of neurons are very important as it is where incoming neural transmission occurs. One of the clearest pathologies seen in those with SZ is the reduction of dendritic spine density (Moyer et al 2015). Using golgi staining and immunohistochemical techniques, multiple studies have shown significant reduction in those with SZ compared to controls. It is important to note that this does not appear to be related to antipsychotic use–in animal models, there were no significant changes in dendritic spine density when antipsychotics were administered over a period of months to one year (Moyer et al., 2015). There is also evidence for reduced lengths and less arborization (branching) of dendritic spines in SZ. Consequently, this reduced arborization hinders proper neuroplasticity, which has been found to occur in the brains of those with SZ (Moyer et al., 2015). MAP-IR (an important part of the plasticity process) has been also shown to be at reduced levels in SZ. Branching of dendritic outgrowths is important for the process of neuroplasticity, wherein we have the capacity to learn and make new connections between neurons. It is unclear how dendritic abnormalities contribute to the development and ongoing symptoms of schizophrenia. Perhaps these abnormalities contribute to the cognitive deficits seen in those with SZ. It is important, however, for researchers and clinicians to disentangle difficulties with cognition in those with SZ due to the disease compared to use with the negative side effects of antipsychotics. Conclusion Schizophrenia is a heavy burden to bear for those living with it and those around them. There are many physiological abnormalities at play, making it difficult to nail down a cohesive theory and subsequent treatment. Though we may be far from understanding it completely, it is important to remember that people suffering should be treated with the same respect as anyone else. We all have the same parts, just different wiring. References Klein, M. O., Battagello, D. S., Cardoso, A. R., Hauser, D. N., Bittencourt, J. C., & Correa, R. G. (2018). Dopamine: Functions, signaling, and association with neurological diseases. Cellular and Molecular Neurobiology , 39 (1), 31–59. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10571-018-0632-3   Ghiasi, N., Azhar, Y., & Singh, J. (n.d.). Psychiatric illness and criminality . National Center for Biotechnology Information. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30725749/ . McCutcheon RA, Reis Marques T, Howes OD. Schizophrenia—An Overview. JAMA Psychiatry.  2020;77(2):201–210. doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2019.3360. Marshall, C. R., Howrigan, D. P., Merico, D., Thiruvahindrapuram, B., Wu, W., Greer, D. S., Antaki, D., Shetty, A., Holmans, P. A., Pinto, D., Gujral, M., Brandler, W. M., Malhotra, D., Wang, Z., Fajarado, K. V. F., Maile, M. S., Ripke, S., Agartz, I., Albus, M., … Sebat, J. (2016, November 21). Contribution of copy number variants to schizophrenia from a genome-wide study of 41,321 subjects . Nature News. https://www.nature.com/articles/ng.3725 . Zigmond, M. J., Wiley, C. A., & Chesselet, M.-F. (2023). Neurobiology of brain disorders: Biological basis of neurological and psychiatric disorders . Academic Press, an imprint of Elsevier.

By Andrew Monti On June 21, 2022, a teenage boy experienced an unexpected horror that permanently and drastically changed his life. Late at night, he and his brother were casually hanging out and smoking cannabis—a seemingly trivial aspect of their daily routine. Shortly after, the boy immediately knew something was wrong. At first, he brushed off audible hallucinations as a strange manifestation of his internal monologue, but the voices he was experiencing became painfully intolerable as minutes passed. He went upstairs to bed for his early shift at 6 a.m., hoping he could sleep the “sounds” away; however, the opposite happened. The audial hallucinations intensified by the second, crescendoing into the sound of a blaring speaker screaming directly in his ears. Next, visual hallucinations began accompanying the auditory ones. In the ceiling corners of his room, he saw nonhuman creatures menacingly leering at him as if he were prey. His feelings of paranoia and helplessness dramatically altered his sense of reality and self-stabilization. Like a frightened child hiding from the monsters in his room, he fell asleep under the sheets.  A few weeks later, a medical consultation concluded that the boy had experienced a drug-induced psychotic episode from cannabis, something he never imagined. That boy was me. Psychosis: What is it? Psychosis is the onset of specific symptoms that impact an individual’s mind by disconnecting them from reality. During an episode, individuals experience disrupted perceptions and hallucinations, which can interfere with their ability to distinguish between reality and not (National Institute of Mental Health, 2023). Currently, psychosis is understood as a combination of multiple susceptibility factors for its development: family history and genetics, exposure to trauma and stressors, and differences in brain development (National Institute of Mental Health, 2023).  Another less commonly recognized way for one to develop psychosis, however, is through substance abuse. Excessive use or withdrawal from a drug can cause a phenomenon called substance-induced psychosis (what I experienced), a potential implication that most adolescents remain entirely unaware of. The Changing Drug Preference Throughout the past few decades, alcohol has consistently been the top illicit drug choice in the United States. However, in recent years, cannabis has outweighed alcohol in terms of daily users. Researcher Jonathan Caulkins analyzed national survey data from the National Survey on Drug Use and Health (NSDUH) regarding the self-reporting of cannabis and alcohol use throughout the past four decades (1979-2022) among the population ages twelve and higher, finding 17.7 million DND (daily or near-daily users) cannabis consumers, while just 14.7 million DND alcohol consumers in 2022 (Caulkins, 2024).  There is no direct cause for this uptick in cannabis rates. Although there is a positive correlation between state legalization and cannabis usage rates, this does not necessarily mean public policy is the leading or only cause of this phenomenon; changes in social norms and general views may also factor in, particularly for adolescents, who tend to be more influenced by perceptions of their peers (Caulkins, 2024). The Harms of Cannabis in Adolescents While many adolescents view marijuana as substantially safer for them than alcohol,  this view is both dangerous and fundamentally incorrect, placing vulnerable groups like teenagers under the false impression that cannabis is risk-free. In an 18-month study, researchers (Camchong et al., 2016) reported two patterns in adolescent individuals with cannabis use disorder (CUD): (1) a consistent and significant decrease in functional connectivity between the caudal anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), and the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC); (2) Stagnant development of resting functional connectivity with the superior frontal gyrus (SFG). These areas in the brain are responsible for everyday functions like decision-making, visceral reactions, and mood regulation, meaning these brain areas fail to function at their maximum potential in adulthood. Crucially, cannabis use in young adults permanently alters the foundational biological aspects of their brains, impairing their judgment and regulation for life. Along with the physiological impacts of cannabis use, psychosis and other psychotic disorders are also of concern. Recently, researchers (McDonald et al., 2024) at the University of Cambridge found that adolescent cannabis users were eleven times more likely to develop psychotic disorders than those who did not consume the drug. In contrast, those aged 20-33 found no association between cannabis use and the development of psychotic disorders (McDonald et al., 2024). That is to say, while societal understandings of marijuana as less harmful than other substances are not false, attempting to extend this understanding to sensitive and vulnerable developing minds is incredibly misguided. Reported psychotic-like symptoms among teenagers from cannabis use have been growing at alarming rates in the past few decades, potentially due to increases in THC concentration (McDonald et al., 2024). Cannabis research as a whole is a grey area since it is a relatively new field. Because our knowledge of the drug is narrow, it is challenging to investigate and answer specific questions surrounding its nature and implications. While there is evidence supporting the idea of cannabis consumption and psychosis development among the adolescent population, more research is necessary because current findings and links are limited in their understanding and scope. What Now…? It is essential to continue educating individuals—particularly adolescents— about marijuana as research continues since the young population is far more susceptible to the severe effects of the drug than the general public is. Considering that social norms surrounding adolescent use of the substance remain prevalent, information surrounding the potential implications for young people must be accessible and taught in schools to prevent more people from having the same type of experience I once did. References Camchong, J., Lim, K. O., & Kumra, S. (2017). Adverse Effects of Cannabis on Adolescent Brain Development: A Longitudinal Study. Cerebral Cortex (New York, N.Y. 1991) , 27 (3), 1922–1930. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhw015 Caulkins, J. P. (2024). Addiction. Changes in Self-Reported Cannabis Use in the United States from 1979 to 2022 , 1–5. https://doi.org/10.1111/add.16519  McDonald, A. J., Kurdyak, P., Rehm, J., Roerecke, M., & Bondy, S. J. (2024). Age-Dependent Association of cannabis use with risk of psychotic disorder. Psychological Medicine , 1–11.  https://doi.org/10.1017/s0033291724000990  U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (n.d.-b). Understanding psychosis . National Institute of Mental Health. https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/understanding-psychosis#part_6514

By: Felicia Shen Why Early Introduction to Mathematics is Important for Early Childhood    Mathematics is applicable in much of our daily lives, from calculating discounts at the grocery store to adjusting measurements for a recipe. Research suggests that math knowledge and mathematical ability are shaped starting early childhood (Eason & Ramani, 2020). Thus, children need early exposure and engagement with numbers and other math concepts to foster a deep understanding of math, which is crucial for future success (DePascale et al., 2021). One way of doing so is through constant and consistent math talk around the child, either in the classroom or at home. While school may be the first place a child receives formal mathematical instruction, parental talk about math concepts during everyday activities is crucial in developing the child's mathematical comprehension and application, so they become familiar with mathematical vernacular and concepts (Vandermaas-Peeler et al., 2007; Thippana et al., 2020). According to Jean Piaget’s stages of Cognitive Development, children enter the preoperational stage around 2 years old, which lasts until 7 years of age before entering the concrete operational stage. During this stage, they can think symbolically, learn to use words, and associate pictures with objects. Thus, this would be the stage where parents can begin to engage with their children about numbers and math since the children are slowly developing their ability to comprehend numbers symbolically and practically. Introduction of Money Talk   One aspect of math talk is money talk , which encompasses the discussions, interactions, and experiences a child can have with money in any setting (Duong et al., 2024; McNeil et al., 2009; Vandermass-Peeler et al., 2007). Exchanging and interacting with money is one of the few ways numbers are used regularly in an applied context. Converting units such as meters to kilometers is another, but it is only employed sometimes in one's daily life. Money talk can play a critical role in developing a child's understanding of various financial concepts, which can profoundly shape their attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors regarding financial matters later in adulthood, whether that occurs in a formal educational setting or the home learning environment (Drever & Quest, 2021).  Coexistence of Money Talk and Number Talk Money talk and number talk are closely related to one another. After all, the child would need to understand the conversations and associations surrounding numbers so the child can begin to understand how they can be applied in other contexts, such as money. When discussing numbers around children, there are formal applications and practical applications. Formal applications would contain formal phrasing, such as "What is 2 + 2?" Conversely, practical applications would employ numbers in a practical situation, similar to word problems, such as "How many fruits would we have in total if we buy 2 apples and 2 pears?" Both of these applications ask the same question but are phrased slightly differently. However, out of these two variations of questions, we often see money talk used in practical applications.  An example of this would be “How much is the total if we buy 5 apples for $2 each?” In this situation, one would have to understand the numerical process and how money plays a role in this issue. Thus, number talk and money talk often coexist with one another.  Duong et al. (2024) examined the association of money talk, number talk, and money and number talk in a pretend grocery activity to see how it pertains to children's math skills, particularly those aged around 4 years old. Grocery shopping is an informal task where many children witness money talk and number talk being exchanged and conversed in a meaningful and applied context. Through this activity, they can begin to acquaint themselves with the value of money and its societal role by using a fake cash register, fake money, and fake food. Through the grocery shopping activity, Duong et al. found that money talk and number talk, individually or co-occurring, all help predict children's money knowledge.   Furthermore, the frequency of parents' money talk was associated with children's ability to solve problems involving money, indicating that math talk is contextual. In fact, it is better when math talk or money talk are spoken within a particular context because it helps create and develop the association better for the child when that context comes up again. For example, talk about discounts and exchanging money will help solidify in the child’s mind when it’s continuously talked about during the grocery shopping context.  Culturally embedded math contexts may help children acquire specific content knowledge beyond basic counting skills, such as the grocery shopping activity associated with money (Duong et al., 2024). Connection Between Money Talk and Financial Literacy   How parents and children exchange money talk is essential to understand because it can predict future financial literacy outcomes for the children. While it is important to learn and understand how money concepts can coexist with numbers, early exposure to how money works and exists is just as important to improve financial literacy in more advanced contexts. For example, conversations surrounding money such as the procedural aspects of credit card usage or the perception of expense based on price and product represent sociocultural contexts in which money talk occurs. Consistent talk and exposure to these concepts will benefit the child greatly as they begin to develop financial literacy, which will help predict future financial outcomes and prevent the likelihood of adverse financial consequences (Beverly & Burkhalter, 2005). Conceptual factors concerning money and the economy   Studies have also examined how cultural factors surrounding the topic of money may influence the child's understanding of money and future attitudes. The exchange of culturally relevant information about money is just as crucial in understanding how money works. The first hurdle that parents and children must go over in money talk is understanding what the bills and coins represent and learning to count and add the bills and coins. However, understanding culturally relevant information about money is just as crucial for children to comprehend. For example, the parent may guide their child on using a pretend credit card or explain that five dollars for a single apple is not a good deal. In their 2007 study, Vandermass-Peeler et al. examined spontaneous numeracy interactions in parent-child pretend play, finding that parents emphasized teaching their children societal and contextual money concepts, such as the value and spending rules, over direct numerical skills like counting and adding the bills (Vandermass-Peeler et al., 2007) Considering that the children in this study were four years old, this suggests that parents, at least at that age, were more concerned about the societal concepts of using money rather than what the money represented. Children at that age would be in the preoperational stage of Piaget's cognitive development, so they already have the cognitive capacity to understand that the bills and coins have a value assigned to them and what they mean in a larger context. Thus, parents might not have felt the need to explain or teach them basic numeracy concepts with money. Instead, the parents can use this opportunity to teach their children sociocultural contexts in which money is utilized, such as deals, bargains, and how to use a credit card (Vandermass-Peeler et al., 2007). Allowance   One way to develop children's understanding and usage of money is by allowing them to handle it in their own way, such as giving them an allowance. Allowance is one of the many cultural factors that partially help develop children's financial competence. There are implications that allowances affect children's spending habits, as exhibited by Abramovitch et al. (1991). They studied if allowance moderated children's spending habits when given a credit card or cash. Children who received an allowance spent a similar amount whether given a credit card or cash, while those without an allowance tended to spend more. In addition, younger children who were given an allowance were better at predicting the prices of items than young children who did not receive an allowance. However, the difference becomes smaller as the child grows older (Abramovitch et al., 1991). This indicates that those who were given an allowance inferred some level of money competence, further implying that early financial competence can benefit their understanding of spending. Children will soon develop financial literacy when allowed to be responsible for their money earlier, leading to better development towards concepts like budgeting. Overall, this study indicates cultural factors within the household or the family, not just outside environmental factors, that can lead to differences in financial literacy. Conclusion  The interaction of money talk and math talk in early childhood is quite vast and much of it cannot be covered in one article. There are so many factors that can affect the child’s numerical skills and math skills. Money talk is just one of the many aspects that can influence a child’s number sense. Once we understand how money talk can influence children's money skills, we can develop interventions or suggestions to better promote their financial knowledge and behaviors. There has been a lack of programs, classes, or interventions in formal education or informal settings that introduce and develop children's financial literacy, leaving them woefully unprepared once they leave their parent's house and start their financial independence (Drever & Quest, 2021). In conclusion, the various studies discussed here highlight the multi-faceted nature of money talk in children and its impact on children's overall development and in promoting financial literacy. These findings express the importance of early interventions for promoting children's financial literacy and money management skills. Fostering conversations about money in children's lives can provide them with the opportunity for hands-on learning and equip them with the necessary knowledge and skills to navigate the world. References Abramovitch, R., Freedman, J. L., & Pliner, P. (1991). Children and money: getting an allowance, credit versus cash, and knowledge of pricing∗. Journal of economic psychology, 12(1), 27-45. Beverly, S. G., & Burkhalter, E. K. (2005). Improving the financial literacy and practices of youths. Children & Schools , 27 (2), 121. Eason, S. H., & Ramani, G. B. (2020). Parent–child math talk about fractions during formal learning and guided play activities. Child development , 91 (2), 546-562. DePascale, M., Prather, R., & Ramani, G. B. (2021). Parent and child spontaneous focus on number, mathematical abilities, and mathematical talk during play activities. Cognitive Development , 59 , 101076 Drever, A. I., & Else-Quest, N. M. (2021). Financial literacy among children: Supporting the achievement of financial well-being in adulthood. In The Routledge handbook of financial literacy (pp. 18-30). Routledge. Duong, S., Elliott, L. E., Sidoti, O., Bachman, H. J., Libertus, M. E., & Votruba-Drzal, E.          (2024). Money Talks! The Role of Parents’ Discussion of Money for Preschoolers’ Math Knowledge. Journal of Numerical Cognition, 10, 1-19. McNeil, N. M., Uttal, D. H., Jarvin, L., & Sternberg, R. J. (2009). Should you show me the money? Concrete objects both hurt and help performance on mathematics problems. Learning and instruction, 19(2), 171-184. Thippana, J., Elliott, L., Gehman, S., Libertus, K., & Libertus, M. E. (2020). Parents’ use of number talk with young children: Comparing methods, family factors, activity contexts, and relations to math skills. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 53, 249- 259. Vandermaas-Peeler, M., Nelson, J., & Bumpass, C. (2007). "Quarters Are What You Put into the Bubble Gum Machine": Numeracy Interactions during Parent-Child Play. Early Childhood Research & Practice , 9 (1), n1.

By: Anya Singh Memory is understood as the persistence of learning and retention of information over time, and it is crucial to our daily lives; being able to store, retain, and retrieve memories gives us the ability to reflect on our past, make plans for our future, and more. Researchers have been formally studying memory for over a hundred years, and their insights are fundamental in building our understanding of memory processes and informing how we may treat memory loss. When you think about memory studies, what procedures come to mind? You may recall the work of Hermann Ebbinghaus, who began the scientific study of memory in 1885 by studying lists of “nonsense syllables” and testing himself on how many he was able to recall (Schwartz, 2017). This method specifically studies semantic  memory, or the storage of language-based content in memory, such as words, facts, and meanings. While studies since then have utilized more complex paradigms, many similarly rely on semantic abilities, where the participant must have the capacity to understand a researcher’s instructions and to give a direct indication that they remember an item; for example, a researcher may ask a participant to recite previously learned words or recount a story about the past. After all, if we want to know what someone remembers, why not just ask them directly?  But there are many forms of memory, and not all populations are suited for semantic paradigms. What if we aren’t able to directly ask an individual what they remember? What if we want to examine the memory of a non-human subject? Researchers have gotten creative in assessing memory for these situations. Which populations are unfit for semantic memory paradigms? 1. Animals Researchers studying memory may find animals to be particularly interesting participants, as animals can often serve as simpler models of processes that become more complex in humans. The use of animals as participants also allows researchers to have greater experimental control than they would if their participants were humans; when working with animals, researchers can more easily manipulate variables ranging from living conditions to levels of brain activation, the latter being especially useful when studying the neural components of memory (Capitanio, 2017).  However, the benefits that come with studying animals are accompanied by some difficulties. Although certain animals have sufficient motor skills and cognitive capacity to carry out experimental tasks, these abilities do not extend to understanding human language. Animals would not be able to understand instructions that researchers give them on how to do a complex task or be able to verbally indicate their memory, such as through reciting previously learned words or recounting a past event. Due to these complications, researchers often cannot use the same common paradigms they use to study memory in human participants to study animals, and instead have to get a bit creative.  2. Infants When it comes to humans, the study of memory is not limited to just adults! Researchers are also interested in studying memory in adolescents, children, and infants in particular, focusing on how memory processes differ and evolve throughout humans' early stages of development, as well as how memory plays a crucial role in other aspects of our development.  Infants constitute another population who are unable to carry out common memory tasks in the same way that human adults are able to. Due to their limited capacity for speech comprehension and production, infants, like animals, would be unable to understand researchers' instructions or provide verbal indicators of their memory. Additionally, infants' lack of motor skills make it hard to carry out alternative physical tasks that researchers may propose. Again, researchers must get creative when studying memory in infants as well! What paradigms can we use to study memory in these populations? Animals When studying animals, learning and memory are typically inferred through observing an animal's behavior that changes as a result of an event or experience. As such, many paradigms used to study memory in animals involve creating an experience that an animal undergoes multiple times—a sort of training—which prompts the animal to then perform a certain action or behave a certain way, with these actions or behaviors serving as indicators of memory. This section will go over two such paradigms that assess spatial and fear memory in animals. 1. Morris Water Maze  The Morris water maze is a task designed to assess rodents' spatial  memory. The water maze itself is a circular pool filled halfway with opaque water; in each trial, a rodent is placed in a new quadrant of the water maze, and the rodent’s goal is to use distal cues—far-away landmarks or markers—to navigate to an escape platform that is hidden in the water (Vorhees & Williams, 2006). Trial after trial, the rodent will become faster at navigating to this platform—the changed behavior of faster navigation as a result of repeated experiences in the water maze is inferred as a demonstration of the rodent's spatial memory. Now, a subsequent “probe trial” can be done to ensure that the rodent is truly using spatial cues, as opposed to proximal or local cues, to navigate to the platform in the water. In this iteration, the platform is taken out of the water, the rodent is placed in a new quadrant of the maze, and researchers observe in which quadrant or quadrants the rodent searches for the platform in. If the rodent spends the majority of its time searching in the target quadrant—the quadrant of the maze that the platform was previously located during training—that is taken as evidence of their spatial memory; if the rodent did not build a spatial memory for the location of the platform, it would spend an equal amount of time in each quadrant. This paradigm has been used extensively among researchers studying the neurobiology behind learning and memory in particular—researchers can use it to determine the role of different brain regions in memory by comparing rodents' performance on the water maze task before and after a lesion. A classic example comes from Richard G. Morris and his colleagues, who put three groups of rodents through the water maze task—a group with hippocampal damage, a group with neocortical damage, and a group who underwent surgery but sustained no brain damage (Morris et al., 1982). They first found that all three groups performed similarly on a version of the task where the platform was visible above the water, establishing that all groups were capable of navigating towards the platform. During the “probe trial,” they then found that only rodents with hippocampal damage spent equal amounts of time in each quadrant, showing that the hippocampus must remain intact in order to form memory of spatial location.  2. Fear Conditioning  Fear conditioning procedures are designed to assess rodents' fear  memory. This procedure involves putting a rodent into a novel environment where it can explore, then playing an auditory tone followed by administering a foot shock (Wehner & Radcliffe, 2004; (Curzon, 1970). The foot shock produces freezing—a fear response defined as a "total lack of movement except for respiration"—in the rodent. Over repeated trials, the rodent learns an association between the shock and the tone and conditioning environment, and freezing—a now increased behavior as a result of learning this association—can be quantified as a measure of memory during later tests. Researchers may decide to test for either context or tone memory: memory of the context or spatial cue can be assessed by measuring the rodents’ freezing after placing it in the same environment that it was trained in (contextual fear conditioning), or memory of the auditory cue can be assessed by measuring the rodent’s freezing after playing the tone but while the rodent is placed in a different environment than it was trained in (cued fear conditioning).  Contextual and cued fear conditioning procedures are also popular in the study of the neurobiology of learning and memory! Researchers can carry out these conditioning procedures, alter something about the rodent's neurobiology, then measure freezing after putting it back in the conditioning context or playing the tone again in order to assess the role of that particular neurobiological component on rodents' fear memory. For example, researchers have assessed the role of certain brain regions on context and tone fear memory by creating lesions to the hippocampus or amygdala in between, and assessed the role of certain receptors in the brain by inactivating NMDA receptors in between. The possibilities are endless!  Infants When creating paradigms to study memory in infants, the goal is to take advantage of behaviors that infants produce spontaneously, and to intentionally put infants in contexts where they show these spontaneous behaviors which can serve as indicators of memory. This section will go over three such paradigms that assess episodic  memory—the memory of distinct events and experiences—in infants. 1. Visual-Paired Comparison Procedure The visual-paired comparison procedure takes advantage of the fact that infants like novelty—infants will typically look longer at things they find interesting and rewarding, which are generally things that are novel to them rather than familiar. In this paradigm, infants are shown two identical visual stimuli side by side for a period of time, and after a certain delay, are shown one familiar stimulus and one novel stimulus side by side for a period of time (Fagan, 1990). Memory is then measured by calculating a novelty preference, or the percent of total fixation time that the infant spent looking at the novel stimulus in particular (Fagan, 1990). A higher novelty preference indicates that the infant looked longer at the novel  stimulus, which researchers can infer to be a demonstration of their memory for the familiar  stimulus; a novelty preference of 0.50 or 50% indicates that an equal amount of time was spent looking at both stimuli, demonstrating a lack of memory for the familiar stimulus.  Due to the use of an indirect measure for memory, relying on infants' preference for novel items, researchers cannot go further to establish the content of these infants' memories using this paradigm. However, a great advantage of this procedure is that it is highly adaptable—it is easy to modify aspects of this paradigm to answer various questions about infants' memory. For example, researchers can use this paradigm to assess the nature of encoding, by altering the amount of time that infants are exposed to the initial stimuli; storage, by altering the duration of the delay; and retrieval, by altering the context or environment that infants retrieve the stimulus in. 2. Mobile Conjugate Reinforcement Paradigm The mobile conjugate reinforcement paradigm takes advantage of the fact that infants will repeat an action if it results in a desirable outcome—in this case, repeating a kicking action to result in movement from a mobile. In this paradigm, infants lay in a crib with an overhead mobile and have a silk cord tied loosely around their ankle (C. K. Rovee & D. T. Rovee, 1969). Researchers measure the number of times an infant kicks during a baseline period, or while their leg is connected to a stationary part of its crib, in order to get a sense of how much an infant kicks on its own; during an acquisition period, or while their leg is connected to the mobile which moves as a result of the infants' kicking movement, to allow the infant to establish an association between the two events; and again during both immediate and long-term retention tests, or while the infant's leg is no longer attached to the mobile, allowing researchers to observe if the infant displays more kicking behavior than in the baseline phase as a result of the conditioning procedure (C. K. Rovee & D. T. Rovee, 1969). Here, memory can be measured by calculating a retention ratio by dividing the kicking rate during the long-term retention test by the kicking rate during the immediate retention test; a higher retention ratio indicates stronger memory. Similar to the visual-paired comparison procedure, while researchers can infer the infants' memory through the use of this indirect measure,, they aren't able to determine the actual content of the memory. However, the mobile conjugate reinforcement paradigm is also easy to adapt for a variety of research questions. Researchers can assess the effects of amount of exposure on encoding by altering the duration of the baseline period, the effects of context change on retrieval by altering the appearance of the crib, and the effects of retention intervals by altering the amount of delay between the immediate and long-term retrieval tests. 3. Imitation Procedure The imitation procedure takes advantage of infants' behavioral tendency to imitate actions. In this paradigm, infants are given a set of physical objects and researchers observe whether or not infants perform a specific sequence of actions with those objects, perform their own play, etc. during a pre-modeling baseline period (​​Lukowski & Milojevich, 2016). Next, a researcher models a sequence of actions with an accompanying narration and the infant is given a chance to imitate the actions either immediately or after a delay. Memory is measured in these retention tests through the number of actions an infant remembers to imitate compared to the number of actions performed in the baseline period, with a higher amount of imitated actions indicating stronger or better memory. A disadvantage of this paradigm is that it puts an additional emphasis on the temporal relations within memories and requires infants to have a certain extent of motor control to be able to imitate these actions. However, unlike the previous two paradigms, researchers using the imitation procedure can  directly measure memory as the number of actions an infant remembers and are able to gain more insight on the content of a memory. Additionally, this paradigm can be altered to further study the effect of the number of actions, type of actions, amount of exposure, and context changes (regarding both changes in objects and environment) on infants' memory. Conclusion Researchers have come up with a variety of creative paradigms to use in the experimental study of memory specifically in populations of participants where obtaining measures of their memory may not be so straightforward. While differences in these populations generally call for different general approaches, many of the paradigms outlined in this article are drawn up from similar concepts and are highly adaptable; using this starting point to understand the strengths and limitations across these paradigms can be useful in considering how they may be applicable in your own research endeavors and towards expanding your research toolkit!  References Capitanio, J. (2017, January). Animal studies in psychology. American Psychological Association. https://www.apa.org/ed/precollege/psn/2017/01/animal-studies . Curzon, P., Rustay, N. R., & Browman, K. E. (1970, January 1). Cued and Contextual Fear Conditioning for Rodents. Methods of Behavior Analysis in Neuroscience. 2nd edition. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK5223/#:~:text=If%2C%20in%20a%20given%20environment,shock%20in%20the%20near%20future   Fagan, J. F. (1990). The Paired-Comparison Paradigm and Infant Intelligence. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 608(1), 337–364. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.1990.tb48902.x     ​​Lukowski, A. F., & Milojevich, H. M. (2016). Examining Recall Memory in Infancy and Early Childhood Using the Elicited Imitation Paradigm. Journal of Visualized Experiments, (110). https://doi.org/10.3791/53347   Morris, R. G., Garrud, P., Rawlins, J. N., & O’Keefe, J. (1982). Place navigation impaired in rats with hippocampal lesions. Nature, 297, 681–683. https://doi.org/10.1038/297681a0   Rovee, C. K., & Rovee, D. T. (1969). Conjugate reinforcement of infant exploratory behavior. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 8(1), 33–39. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-0965(69)90025-3 Schwartz, B. L. (2017). Introduction to the Study of Memory. In Memory: Foundations and Applications (4th ed., pp. 1–33). essay, SAGE Publications, Inc.  Vorhees, C. V., & Williams, M. T. (2006). Morris water maze: Procedures for assessing spatial and related forms of learning and memory. Nature Protocols, 1(2), 848–858. https://doi.org/10.1038/nprot.2006.116   Wehner, J. M., & Radcliffe, R. A. (2004). Cued and contextual fear conditioning in mice. Current Protocols in Neuroscience, 27(1). https://doi.org/10.1002/0471142301.ns0805cs27

By Bernd van Ruremonde Image by macrovector on Freepik Introduction Approximately 12 years ago, in 2012, I had my first encounter with the then relatively small Marvel Cinematic Universe: I finally saw the movie Iron Man . Aside from the impact this film (and all the ones that followed) had on me as a person, I believe it was one of the first times I truly formed an interest in artificial and natural intelligence. Like many kids, I wanted a JARVIS . Of course, the closest thing we had was a voice assistant like Siri  or Alexa . Even more interesting to me was how Tony seemingly controlled his suit without any concrete inputs. Ever since then, I’ve been obsessed with neuroscience and brain-computing interfacing, though breakthroughs in this field had always seemed equivalent to something like faster-than-light travel: something science-fiction, something I wouldn’t experience in my lifetime. And yet, a mind-controlled Iron Man -esque suit is getting closer and closer to becoming a reality. Let me take you on a journey through the world of Brain-Computing Interfacing, or BCI for short.  History and Evolution While the term ‘Brain-Computer Interfacing’ was first coined by computer scientist Jacques Vidal (1973) in his paper “Toward Direct Brain-Computer Communication”, the foundation of this field was laid almost 50 years prior, in 1924. German psychiatrist and neuroscientist Hans Berger was the first person to make an electroencephalogram (EEG) of the human brain, a non-invasive way of measuring brain activity (Ince et al., 2020). This technique formed the very basis of brain-computer interfacing. Initially, however, computing power limited EEG to ‘off-line’ use, or after the fact. Vidal revolutionised this technique by proposing an ‘on-line’ use, enabling real-time measuring of brain signals while participants were performing tasks. This discovery allowed him to develop rudimentary BCI systems which allowed participants to control very simple devices using just EEG signals. Jumping ahead another three decades, the company BrainGate  reached a significant milestone in the field of BCI (Brower, 2005). Their technology, focused on patients with severe paralysis, consisted of a small sensor implanted in the motor cortex of the brain. It read the neural activity in the area and sent it to a computer to be decoded and translated into commands, used to control a digital cursor, robotic arm, or other devices. It marked a breakthrough in BCI research, showcasing the advancements and developments in neural recording and decoding. Recent Developments Even in more recent times, the field of BCI is undergoing rapid developments. One groundbreaking example is the work of Gregoire Courtine and his team in 2023, who developed a Brain-Spine Interface for a man with a chronic spinal cord injury. This innovative technology, described in a study published in Nature (Lorach et al., 2023), essentially created a "digital bridge" between the patient's brain and spinal cord. Implanted electrodes in the man's brain translated his intentions to move into electrical signals, which were then transmitted to the spinal cord via a wireless system. This allowed him to regain control over his lower limbs, enabling him to walk again. This remarkable achievement not only demonstrates the potential of BCI to address neurological conditions but also offers hope for millions of people living with paralysis, who may one day regain lost mobility through similar technologies. Future Directions With all this evolution, it's hard to imagine the possibilities the future holds for BCI. One particularly ambitious project is Elon Musk's Neuralink , an implantable BCI that aims to create a direct link between the human brain and artificial intelligence (Fiani et al., 2021). Neuralink's goal is nothing short of merging human cognitive abilities with the limitless potential of artificial intelligence, possibly unlocking new frontiers in communication, learning, and problem-solving. While only recently having started human trials, Neuralink  has already made significant progress, developing devices that are remarkably small and sophisticated as compared to other technologies. These devices, consisting of tiny threads with electrodes, are designed to be implanted in the brain with minimal invasiveness. While the initial focus is on treating neurological conditions like Parkinson's disease and epilepsy, Neuralink  envisions a future where their technology could enhance human capabilities across various domains, potentially leading to a profound shift in the relationship between humans and machines. Ethical Issues However, the rapid advancements in the field are not without issue. Aside from BCIs providing technical challenges, they also raise ethical concerns. The lines between man and machine can start to get blurred, and the question of privacy is more relevant than ever with electrodes being able to read your every thought. And while BCIs are currently focussed on just retrieving intentions, what happens when they start sending their own intentions? While it is difficult to imagine, one day the devices might reach the capability to control us, instead of the other way around. That is something that we must be prepared to deal with. While often intended as jokes, online communities are expressing their fear for Neuralink  in particular. Through memes and short-form videos, they talk about the possibility of the devices some day showing advertisements in their brains, or the possibility of their brains being hacked remotely. Though they are formatted as humorous or satire, they often contain a core of truth, demonstrating the implicit fear that people have for BCIs. What’s next? We’ve come a long way since Berger’s first electroencephalogram. Time after time, scientists and researchers have shown that the future of this beautiful field is beyond our wildest imaginations, even after BrainGate ’s rapid advancement in the field.  All in all, we are still far away from a fully automatic Iron Man  suit, even with all these advancements. And honestly, it might not be a bad thing. Allowing time for regulations and ethical consideration can bring tremendous benefit to the field in the long run. And while many people are scared of being brain-washed or mind-controlled, I’m super excited to see what the future of BCIs will bring. Bibliography Brower, V. (2005). When mind meets machine. EMBO Reports , 6 (2), 108–110. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.embor.7400344 Fiani, B., Reardon, T., Ayres, B., Cline, D., & Sitto, S. R. (2021). An examination of prospective uses and future directions of Neuralink: the Brain-Machine Interface. Curēus . https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.14192 İnce, R., Adanır, S. S., & Sevmez, F. (2020). The inventor of electroencephalography (EEG): Hans Berger (1873–1941). Child’s Nervous System , 37 (9), 2723–2724. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00381-020-04564-z Lorach, H., Galvez, A., Spagnolo, V., Martel, F., Karakas, S., Intering, N., Vat, M., Faivre, O., Harte, C., Komi, S., Ravier, J., Collin, T., Coquoz, L., Sakr, I., Baaklini, E., Hernandez-Charpak, S. D., Dumont, G., Buschman, R., Buse, N., . . . Courtine, G. (2023). Walking naturally after spinal cord injury using a brain–spine interface. Nature , 618 (7963), 126–133. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-023-06094-5 Vidal, J. J. (1973). Toward direct Brain-Computer communication. Annual Review of Biophysics and Bioengineering , 2 (1), 157–180. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.bb.02.060173.001105

By: Alondra Alamillo Introduction  Lily is a year sober today, but she does not feel it is worth celebrating. Although she is now months into her successful probation, she struggles to accept her past Adderall use. Despite her progress, she has no hope of recovering the stable career and family support she had before her charges. After her second offense, she was kicked out of her parent’s home and left to navigate court-ordered conditions all on her own. However, through all the court-appointed requirements including frequent drug testing, officer visits, treatment plans, and her continued sobriety, she was able to maintain her probation. Still, she can not celebrate. Coworkers and peers view her as untrustworthy and constantly discriminate against her, labeling her as an addict and criminal. To avoid ridicule, Lily often thinks about quitting her job entirely, as she feels she will never be known for anything besides her past mistakes. Blinded by her internalized feelings of shame and judgment, she fails to recognize that her progress has been worth it. She fears that even after successfully completing her probation and paying off her fees, it will not be enough to be considered a valuable member of society.  For Lily, and other individuals with Substance Use Disorder, the reality is they cannot celebrate. When the world around them refuses to retire the stereotypes, it can cause them to stop seeking the development they deserve and have worked hard to achieve. When vulnerability is high, the risk of relapse is greater.  Stigma  Individuals living with mental illness have a history of facing discriminatory stigma, and as a result, are less likely to seek treatment and services  (Newman et al., 2023). Negative societal attitudes, such as excluding and disapproving of people struggling with mental health challenges, are far more common than for people struggling with physical illnesses (Verona et al., 2023). Self-stigma is  the concept of having negative attitudes about oneself and relates to the internalization of negative characteristics and stereotypes associated with a group. Much like labeling theory, where others use stigmatizing labels to describe minorities resulting in internalization and conformity to society's views. Peers and coworkers labeled Lily as untrustworthy and judged her for her charges associated with her past substance use; it contributed to her self-stigma.  Substance Use Disorder  Substance Use Disorder (SUD), in some cases, is characterized by impaired control of use, social impairment, risky use, and tolerance categories( Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders , 2013.). Classification can be rated as mild, moderate, or severe depending on the number of criteria met. SUD is particularly stigmatized, as it is believed that those who suffer from it are entirely responsible for their disorder; even when people are working to overcome SUD and the setbacks created by the disease, the misuse of substances, addiction, and unlawful activities are viewed as preventable choices (Luoma et al., 2012.) The criminality aspect associated with substance use creates another layer of socially unacceptable qualities (Newman et al., 2023). Such as in Lily’s past Adderall use, her criminal record was an additional challenge that made it difficult for her to return to her prior career position. Self-Stigma in SUD  Unable to accept substance misuse due to social disapproval, individuals with SUD may go to great lengths to hide their use to avoid judgment and rejection. Social withdrawal as a coping mechanism is formed from believing the stereotypes associated with addiction and criminality. According to a study conducted by Luoma et al. (2012), the Substance Abuse Self Stigma Scale (SASS), a method of measuring self-stigma in individuals with SUD was tested. notably, measuring perceptions of other people’s stigma was highly related to fear of discrimination. Social withdrawal, as an attempt to avoid stigma from others, was suggested to have a high correlation with self-stigma (Luoma et al., 2012.) Self-forgiveness Model To test for the effect the model of self-forgiveness has on individuals diagnosed with SUD together with treatment as usual, scores were collected before and after the 6-step self-forgiveness model using the SASS model. In a study conducted by Verona et al. (2023), an additional scale was introduced known as the Self-Forgiveness Dual Process Scale (SFDPS.) The 6-step process according to Verona et al. (2023), can be divided into two main areas. The first three steps focus on helping “individuals accept responsibility for their actions…” while the final three steps are designed to repair “emotional self harm and helping individuals accept themselves as flawed human beings.” This study used self-reporting, and based on the 6-step process, the scales were designed to emphasize responsibility and to reinstate positive self-opinions.  After comparing pre- and post-participant scores, the results suggest that self-forgiveness is a statistically significant predictor. The condition that included the 6-step SASS model along with treatment as usual was more effective in decreasing self-stigma than the condition without the self-forgiveness model. Interestingly, the aspect emphasizing that participants take responsibility for their past actions did not have a main effect as expected. While the intervention highlighting self-forgiveness steps in treatment was significant, participants involved in this study had already held themselves accountable and have accepted their actions. The intervention had been indicated to be a “strong predictor of the extent to which participants replaced self-condemning ones with self reaffirming ones.” (Verona et al., 2023).  Why Empowerment Matters According to a study by Webb et al. (2024), an important finding was recognizing that stigma can be regarded as the root of internalized stigma. Replacing self-condemning rituals with positive reaffirming ones to help heal self-concept is effective, promoting empowerment in individuals with SUD is vital to stopping self-stigma  (Webb et al., 2024.) Additional steps that make a difference include creating an environment where self-stigma cannot happen by supporting peers with SUD and helping to diminish stigma surrounding mental illness to target the root cause (Rusch et al., 2005.). From a clinical standpoint, placing a special emphasis on self-forgiveness specifically, instead of focusing on forgiveness from others or forgiving others, may be a way of returning power to individuals with SUD. Advancement in reform or evaluating the efficacy of SUD treatment for justice-involved individuals could also help diminish the stigma surrounding its criminality.  References Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders . (n.d.). DSM Library. https://dsm.psychiatryonline.org/doi/book/10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596 Geralt. (2018, January 19). Download Woman, Bullying, Stress. Royalty-Free Stock Illustration image . Pixabay. https://pixabay.com/illustrations/woman-bullying-stress-finger-3089939/ Luoma, J. B., Nobles, R. H., Drake, C. E., Hayes, S. C., O’Hair, A., Fletcher, L., & Kohlenberg, B. S. (2012). Self-Stigma in substance abuse: Development of a new measure. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment , 35 (2), 223–234. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10862-012-9323-4 Newman, B. N., & Crowell, K. A. (2023). The intersectionality of criminality and substance use self-stigmas. Stigma and Health, 8 (2), 212–222. https://doi.org/10.1037/sah0000293   Rüsch, N., Angermeyer, M. C., & Corrigan, P. W. (2005). Mental illness stigma: Concepts, consequences, and initiatives to reduce stigma. European Psychiatry , 20 (8), 529–539. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eurpsy.2005.04.004 Verona, Michael & Branthoover, Holly. (2023). The Effect of a Self-Forgiveness Model on Self-Stigma in Individuals Diagnosed with Substance Use Disorders Counseling and Values 67 (2022) 203-224. 67. 203-224. 10.1163/2161007x-67020004.  Webb, J., & Boye, C. (2024). Self-Forgiveness and Self-Condemnation in the context of addictive behavior and suicidal behavior. Substance Abuse and Rehabilitation , Volume 15 , 21–30. https://doi.org/10.2147/sar.s396964