Olivia Gudeahn Attachment theory is a pillar of developmental psychology. It describes the early relationship between a primary caregiver and their child as highly influential towards the future development of the child’s attachment style, or their behavior in other relationships (Flaherty & Sadler, 2011). Attachment theory specifies four main types: secure, anxious, avoidant, and disorganized attachments (Cleveland Clinic, 2022). These attachment styles can be observed during the Strange Situation assessment, pioneered by Dr. Mary Ainsworth of the University of Toronto (GoodTherapy, 2018). Ainsworth completed her undergraduate and graduate education at the University of Toronto; she earned her BA in 1935, MA in 1936, and PhD from 1935 to 1939 (Cherry, 2019). After attaining a doctorate in psychology, Ainsworth taught at the University of Toronto before moving to London with her husband. In London, Ainsworth worked with psychologist John Bowlby, who was interested in exploring the bonds between mothers and their children. Bowlby suggested that human children are born with "an innate drive to form attachments with caregivers" (Cherry, 2023)–that this drive for bond formation functions as a survival mechanism. After collaborating with Bowlby, Ainsworth completed a two-year study at the East African Institute for Social Research in Kampala, Uganda (Bretherton, 2013). In Uganda, Ainsworth “conducted an observational study of 26 mothers and their infants living in six villages near Kampala,” (Duschinsky, 2020). Ainsworth’s observations revealed that the more responsive a mother was to her baby's needs, the more likely the baby was to develop a secure attachment to the mother figure (Arcus, n.d.). Results of the SSP show that securely attached infants display distress when the caregiver leaves the room, are wary of the stranger when alone, and are happy when the caregiver returns (McLeod, 2024). Securely attached infants view the caregiver as someone who will work to meet their needs.  Ainsworth also observed differences in the mothers’ responsiveness, or what she called maternal sensitivity : "The accurate interpretation and prompt and appropriate responsiveness to the full range (from overt to subtle) of an infant's signals and communications (Dawson, 2018). Sensitive interactions over time create a relationship between the caregiver and infant that gives the infant a secure base: a sense of stability and safety, both signs of secure attachment, in stressful situations with which to explore their surroundings. Ainsworth observed this positive correlation between maternal sensitivity and secure attachment in both America and Uganda, suggesting that the process of forming, and likely the need for, secure attachments transcend cultural differences (Dawson, 2018).  While a child’s style of attachment was important to identify, it was tedious to do so. Bowlby collected data through clinical research on separations from the mother and poor mother-child relationships (Van Rosmalen et al., 2015). Clinical research was, however, time-consuming. Ainsworth and Bowbly needed a procedure that would quickly analyze the caregiver-child relationship. Ainsworth created this efficient alternative, the Strange Situation Procedure, for her Baltimore Study (Van Rosmalen et al., 2015). The Strange Situation Procedure (SSP) takes place in a laboratory setting. The assessment is divided into eight episodes and has three components. A primary caregiver and their child are instructed to play in a new setting (the laboratory playroom). A stranger (research assistant) eventually enters the room: the cue for the caregiver to leave. The child is left alone with the stranger until the caregiver re-enters, and then the stranger leaves. Next, the caregiver exits, leaving only the child in the room. In the last episodes of the SSP, the stranger re-enters for the final time, followed by the caregiver’s return. The SSP is recorded on film to code the child's behavior (Van Rosmalen et al., 2015). During the child's reunification with their caregiver, their behavior is analyzed to determine their attachment style. Ainsworth determined three attachment styles from the SSP: secure, ambivalent-insecure, and avoidant-insecure (Cherry, 2023). With Ainsworth's SSP, psychologists Mary Main and Judith Solomon researched a fourth attachment style: disorganized-insecure. (Cherry, 2023). The SSP is not without its faults. Chiefly, critics suggest that attachment cannot only be based on behavior upon reunification and separation from caregiver to child (Lee, 2003). The SSP is also criticized for its cultural limitations, as it was created through Ainsworth’s study of American children. Historically, the SSP’s use has been kept to the evaluation of mother-child attachments, overlooking the other attachment figures an infant has. This narrow aspect of research may demonstrate a cultural bias: "Many people who study attachment come from industrialized societies where mothers usually bear most of the responsibility for infant care," (Dewar, 2018). In Ainsworth’s defense, the SSP was not to be a stand-alone assessment; rather, it was meant to be combined with naturalistic behavior observations and other strategies to determine attachment styles (Spies & Duschinsky, 2021). Why highlight Ainsworth and her creation of the SSP despite its flaws? Ainsworth may be listed as being the 97th most influential psychologist in 2002 (American Psychological Association, 2002), but "little equivalent attempt has been made to claim Ainsworth in published writings or undertake trainings in her measures and receive enculturation in related tacit knowledge," (Spies & Duschinsky, 2021). While Bowlby has been extensively credited for his developmental and social psychology work, Ainsworth has not received the same treatment. Ainsworth’s assessment and her legacy are just as important to developmental psychology. References American Psychological Association. (2002, August). Eminent psychologists of the 20th century. Https://Www.apa.org . https://www.apa.org/monitor/julaug02/eminent Arcus, D. (n.d.). Mary Ainsworth . Psychology.jrank.org . https://psychology.jrank.org/pages/20/Mary-Ainsworth.html Bretherton, I. (2013). Revisiting Mary Ainsworth’s conceptualization and assessments of maternal sensitivity-insensitivity. Attachment & Human Development , 15 (5-6), 460–484. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616734.2013.835128 Cherry, K. (2019, April 21). A Biography of Mary Ainsworth . Verywell Mind. https://www.verywellmind.com/mary-ainsworth-biography-2795501 Cherry, K. (2023, February 22). How attachment theory works . Verywell Mind. https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-attachment-theory-2795337#:~:text=Attachment%20is%20an%20emotional%20bond Cleveland Clinic. (2022, September 23). What’s Your Attachment Style?  Cleveland Clinic. https://health.clevelandclinic.org/attachment-theory-and-attachment-styles Dawson, N. K. (2018). From Uganda to Baltimore to Alexandra Township: How far can Ainsworth’s theory stretch? South African Journal of Psychiatry , 24 . https://doi.org/10.4102/sajpsychiatry.v24i0.1137 Dewar, G. (2018, January 2). The Strange Situation test: Is your child securely attached?  PARENTING SCIENCE. https://parentingscience.com/strange-situation/ Duschinsky, R. (2020). Mary Ainsworth and the Strange Situation Procedure. Cornerstones of Attachment Research , 109-C2.T2. https://doi.org/10.1093/med-psych/9780198842064.003.0002 Flaherty, S. C., & Sadler, L. S. (2011). A Review of Attachment Theory in the Context of Adolescent Parenting. Journal of Pediatric Health Care , 25 (2), 114–121. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pedhc.2010.02.005 GoodTherapy. (2018, March 2). Mary Ainsworth Biography . Www.goodtherapy.org . https://goodtherapy.org/famous-psychologists/mary-ainsworth.html Lee, E. J. (2003, December). Review and Criticisms of Attachment Theory . Personalityresearch.org . http://www.personalityresearch.org/papers/lee.html Linfield, R. (1973). Mary Ainsworth (center) playing with a child [Photograph]. In http://jhir.library.jhu.edu/handle/1774.2/56103 . McLeod, S. (2024, January 17). Mary Ainsworth: Strange Situation Experiment & Attachment Theory . Simplypsychology.org . https://www.simplypsychology.org/mary-ainsworth.html Spies, R., & Duschinsky, R. (2021). Inheriting mary ainsworth and the strange situation: Questions of legacy, authority, and methodology for contemporary developmental attachment researchers. SAGE Open , 11 (3). https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440211047577 Van Rosmalen, L., Van der Veer, R., & Van der Horst, F. (2015). AINSWORTH’S STRANGE SITUATION PROCEDURE: THE ORIGIN OF AN INSTRUMENT. Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences , 51 (3), 261–284. https://doi.org/10.1002/jhbs.21729

By: Noah Morales Introduction:   Every time my parents discuss how to raise a child with new families, the common phrase of “parenting doesn’t come with a handbook” tends to get thrown out. Despite this, a large majority of the advice given is what their parents or themselves did throughout raising their child. This advice typically comes from experiences that past parents have encountered and overcame. However, this advice is not the same amongst everybody. There are many cultural differences that parents may believe in and recognizing these differences in development is critical to each child as they develop.  Sleeping Patterns:   As an infant, sleeping and sleeping arrangements are vital to a baby's development. When it comes to these arrangements, every detail counts. Things such as proximity to a parent, nursing, and even bedtime routines are all included within a sleeping pattern. However, different cultures have differing actions. According to Morelli et al. (1992) it was found that caucasian middle class families in Utah do not share a room with their children, stay up at night to feed their children, and have strict bedtime routines with a kid usually having a comfort item like a teddy bear or blanket. This differs from Guatemalan families and Mayan culture, where there is co-sleeping until the age of two, nursing on demand without staying up, and no bedtime routine or comfort items.  What the report fails to include are other ethnic groups in the U.S, as well as other socio-economic backgrounds. The goal of the study was to broaden the understanding of cultural practices between families in the U.S. and families of Mayan descent with sleeping patterns, but did not succeed to look at any other ethnic groups. Despite this, Morelli accurately describes and notes differing patterns between the two cultures.  Motor Actions: When observing other people’s reaching actions, the main hand you fixate on is the one actively moving, and not the other hand that isn’t reaching. By this logic, we have the ability to predict the objective of other people’s actions based on their hands. As infants develop, there is an increase in the amount of actions performed. For example, six-month-old infants can predict eating actions performed by an individual with a spoon, putting objects inside containers at ten to twelve months, and placing puzzle pieces on a puzzle board at 25 months. However, with the first motor actions, not every culture uses spoons to eat. A study performed by Green et al. (2016) gathered infants of Swedish and Chinese descent that were eight months, and investigated their ability to predict the goal of self-directed, tool-use actions that they have more experience with performing. These actions were performed using two different tools, being spoons and chopsticks.  The hypothesis behind this study is that each infant would be able to predict the goal of actions based on the tool they are most acquainted with. The final sample of infants included 56 infants, with 28 of them coming from each culture. What was found was that Chinese infants were able to fixate on the mouth before the food arrived there, only if chopsticks were used as a mechanism for eating. When a spoon was used, the Chinese infants failed to predict the events of what the action resulted in. Swedish infants produced the opposite results, where they were able to predict patterns by using a spoon, but not with the chopsticks. These findings highlight the idea of a difference in cultural development between ethnic groups, as although the means to produce the action was the same between each tool, it was the tool that determined whether or not the infant was able to recognize actions. Care of Preterm Infants: The term “preterm infant” is described as any baby that is born alive before 37 weeks of pregnancy has been completed. Usually when a baby is preterm, they must spend some time in the hospital before getting discharged safely and healthily. Despite this, the term healthily takes different definitions depending on the culture that person is from. A study done by Adama (2020) explores the influence of sociocultural practices on caring for infants in the Ghanaian community. To do this, Adama interviewed thirty parents between the ages of 19 and 38.  Within this culture, there were three prevalent themes amongst the majority of the families with a prenatal infant. Respect for the elderly, the use of herbal medicine, and communal living. In regards to the elderly, there was an overwhelming amount of respect for the eldest member in the family, and it is deemed disrespectful questioning what they believed regardless of education levels. For herbal medicine, it is a common practice amongst both rural and urban Ghanaians to be used. Some childhood illnesses in the community are considered not for hospitals, and use spiritual and herbal treatment. Although this is the most popular choice, there are some families that are unable to resist them. Infants in Ghana can be seen with white paint on their skin and wearing special charms, anklets, and bracelets. Finally, communal living includes the newborn as a part of it. Therefore, neighbors, friends, and family members all provide spontaneous advice. Additionally, the community helps to step in with house chores such as cleaning, cooking, fetching water, and running errands when a newborn joins the community. These distinct forms of care are special to the Ghanan community, and follow their own distinct form of care.  Conclusion: To conclude, each culture and community has their own specific ways of providing help to the development of an infant. It is unfair to criticize how one culture may do something that another culture might. Everyone has their own special way to help, and there is no right or wrong way to raise a child that is the product of their environment. Overall, there is one common goal amongst every community, and that is to develop the infant in a happy and healthy way. References: Adama, Esther Abena, et al. “Sociocultural practices affecting the care of preterm infants in the Ghanaian community.” Journal of Transcultural Nursing , vol. 32, no. 5, 22 Nov. 2020, pp. 458–465, https://doi.org/10.1177/1043659620975098 . Green, D., Li, Q., Lockman, J.J. and Gredebäck, G. (2016), Culture Influences Action Understanding in Infancy: Prediction of Actions Performed With Chopsticks and Spoons in Chinese and Swedish Infants. Child Dev, 87: 736-746. https://doi-org.proxy.lib.umich.edu/10.1111/cdev.12500 Morelli, Gilda A., et al. “Cultural variation in infants’ sleeping arrangements: Questions of independence.” Developmental Psychology , vol. 28, no. 4, 1992, pp. 604–613, https://doi.org/10.1037//0012-1649.28.4.604 .

Alexa Kightlinger Introduction to DID We’ve all been there. From forgetting where we’ve haphazardly thrown our car keys to missing an important meeting that simply slipped from our minds, we are all prone to forgetfulness or memory lapses. However, for individuals with dissociative identity disorder or DID, these memory lapses, which are characterized as dissociation, can severely impact the individual's daily life. Many who suffer from DID are forced to put together the missing pieces of their life which are now lost due to alter switches. This dissociation is characterized by the presence of two or more separate identities that each have their own pattern of perceiving the environment and self. It often occurs as a response to highly traumatic events an individual underwent at a young age which lead to the development of DID. However, controversy still surrounds the existence of dissociative identity disorder (DID) despite its first introduction to the DSM-III in 1980, where it was first coined as multiple personality disorder. Many skeptics believe this disorder is created through iatrogenesis, where the diagnosis through the power of suggestive questioning can create or worsen it. Other versions of this belief follow the idea that clinicians would “implant” false memories of childhood trauma (Loewenstein, 2018). This false-memory viewpoint continues to play a large role in other dissociative disorders as well as a significant presence in psychology textbooks and media representation (Loewenstein, 2018).  Current Literature Much like a coin, there are two sides to every debate with many researchers accepting the existence of DID. While many studies have shown an association between a DID diagnosis and a previous history of childhood trauma, little research has been conducted on the neurobiology of the disorder (Vermetten et. al, 2006). This has allowed researchers to perform more in-depth neuroimaging studies on individuals diagnosed with the disorder. A 2006 study done by Vermetten et. al used magnetic resonance imaging to measure the volumes of the hippocampus and amygdala in 15 patients with DID and 23 patients who had neither DID nor any other psychiatric disorder to serve as the control. Since early stress has been associated with changes to the hippocampal structure in both animal and human studies, researchers hypothesized that patients with DID would have smaller hippocampal and amygdala volumes in comparison to their healthy counterparts (Vermetten et. al, 2006). This idea held true as researchers found that the hippocampus and amygdala volumes were 19.2% and 31.6% smaller respectively in comparison to the control group (Vermetten et. al, 2006). These findings make sense when you consider some primary functions of the hippocampus and amygdala - memory, emotion regulation, and stress response. Smaller volumes in these areas could be indicative of how individuals with DID process their memories and may help explain one of the main symptoms of DID: dissociative amnesia.  Another study done by Dimitrova et. al (2021) was conducted on 32 individuals with DID and 43 healthy controls. This study focused primarily on how the substructures of the hippocampus volumes differed between the two groups. Using MRI neuroimaging, they were able to measure the bilateral global hippocampus and more specific areas which include the CA1-4, GC-ML-DG, fimbria, HATA, parasubiculum, and subiculum. A brief description of these areas is detailed below. Cornu Ammonis (1-4) CA1: Plays a role in memory consolidation and spatial navigation. CA2 + CA3: Involved in memory processes such as associative memory and pattern separation. CA4: Contextual information and pattern completion. Granule Cells, Molecular Layer, Dentate Gyrus (GC-ML-DG) Granule Cells: Pattern separation, neurogenesis, network excitation, and spatial memory.  Molecular Layer: Synaptic integration, facilitating neuron communication, learning, memory, and integration of information. Dentate Gyrus: Input region of the hippocampus from the entorhinal cortex. Involved in pattern separation. Fimbria Fibrous bundles that connect the hippocampus to other regions of the brain. Hypothalamus, Amaydgala, Thalamus, and Anterior nuclei of the dorsal thalamus (HATA) A term that emphasizes how the hippocampus is connected to other brain regions involved in memory, emotion, and sensory processing. Parasubiculum Helps to process spatial information. Subiculum Serves as a main output structure of the hippocampus and plays a role in spatial memory and decision making Image Source: https://radiopaedia.org/articles/hippocampus Using Freesurfer, a software package for analyzing neuroimaging data, they found differences in hippocampus volumes between patients with DID and the healthy group. Specifically, they found these differences in the bilateral global hippocampus, bilateral CA1, right CA4, right GC-ML-DG, and the left presubiculum (Dimitrova et. al 2021). In addition to the volumetric analysis conducted, they also chose to run several correlational analyses for possible relationships between the factors of dissociative experience: dissociative amnesia, absorption, depersonalization/derealisation as well as traumatization. For this, dissociative amnesia was the only dissociative symptom that was correlated with the significant reduction for the bilateral hippocampal CA1 (Dimitrova et. al 2021). This finding indicates dissociative amnesia may be linked to the decreased volume of the CA1. For traumatization, emotional neglect was negatively correlated with several regions, including the bilateral global hippocampus, bilateral CA1, CA4, GC-ML-DG, and right CA3 (Dimitrova et. al 2021). The negative correlation suggests that more severe symptoms may be connected to the smaller hippocampal volumes, specifically in the CA1.  Moving Forward While both studies made great strides in supporting the existence of DID by providing solid evidence showing differences in brain structure, much more research is called for. For one, both the Vermetten and Dimitrova studies were conducted entirely on a female database, making it impossible to generalize these findings to men. Additionally, DID is a complex condition that is not yet fully understood. This includes the complexity of dissociation itself, symptom variability, and diagnostic challenges as the disorder is often misdiagnosed. Its stigmatization in the media with films such as Split (2016) works to portray those who suffer from DID as villainous and may lead to many not seeking out the proper help they need due to the fear of societal backlash. Citations Dimitrova, L. I., Dean, S. L., Schulmpf, Y. R., Vissia, E. M., Nijenhuis, E. R., Chatzi, V., Jäncke, L., Veltman, D. J., Chalavi, S., & Reinders, A. A. (2021). A neurostructural biomarker of dissociative amnesia: a hippocampal study in dissociative identity disorder. Psychological Medicine 53 (3), 805-813. https://doi.org/ 10.1017/S0033291721002154 Loewenstein, R. J. (2018). Dissociation debates: everything you know is wrong. Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience 20 (3), 229-242. https://doi.org/10.31887/DCNS.2018.20.3/rloewenstein Vermetten, E., Schmahl, C., Lindner, S., Loewenstein, R. J., & Bremner, J. D. (2006). Hippocampal and Amygdalar Volumes in Dissociative Identity Disorder. The American Journal of Psychiatry 163 (4), 630-636. https:// doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.163.4.63 0

By: Autumn Augustus Introduction: In a dimly lit room, the young boy confides with a haunting whisper, "I see dead people," a famous line from the 1999 movie "The Sixth Sense" that continues to influence paranormal media today. The film attracted a lot of attention, spurring discussions about clairvoyance and other paranormal beliefs. Numerous other paranormal films and television series have been produced as a result of this film. This raises the question of how the media has portrayed paranormal beliefs and how that has impacted both our individual beliefs and our society as a whole. In today's media-saturated society, the portrayal of supernatural phenomena in pop culture has a profound impact on public perceptions and beliefs. From television shows to movies to online content, media representations of the paranormal shape our understanding of the mysterious and the unexplained. In this article, we will be discussing the relationship between media influence and belief formation by focusing on the cultivation theory. Through this exploration, we seek to contribute  a deeper understanding of the complex relationship between media, cognition, and belief formation in contemporary society. Cultivation Theory Overview: According to the communications and sociological framework known as "cultivation theory," prolonged media consumption alters how people view the world and behave in daily life. George Gerbner developed cultivation theory in 1969 as a reaction to the media effect research tradition, which at the time focused only on the immediate effects of media exposure. Gebner argued that since the media has the power to shape people's attitudes, values, and beliefs, repeated exposure to media messages will eventually translate into reality. Gebner also created the phrase "The Mean World Syndrome," which characterizes a cognitive bias in which people perceive the world as more dangerous than it actually is after witnessing violent acts. For example, individuals who watch a high volume of crime dramas on television may develop an exaggerated fear of crime in their own communities, despite statistical evidence suggesting otherwise. This phenomenon highlights how media portrayals can distort individuals' perceptions of reality, leading them to overestimate the prevalence of negative events.  Other well-known terms that Gebner has also coined are resonance and mainstreaming. Mainstreaming refers to the process by which television viewers from diverse backgrounds are exposed to the same labels and images on a regular basis, leading them to develop a shared worldview. For instance, advertising often promotes certain beauty standards, such as thinness for women and muscularity for men, as ideal and aspirational. Through repeated exposure to these portrayals viewers may internalize and accept these standards as societal norms, contributing to body dissatisfaction and the perpetuation of unrealistic beauty ideals. On the other hand, resonance occurs when television stories resonate with viewers' real-life experiences. For example, individuals who have personally experienced mental health struggles may find resonance in media portrayals of mental illness and recovery. Seeing accurate and empathetic representations of mental health issues in television dramas or documentaries can help viewers feel understood and less stigmatized, encouraging open conversations and de-stigmatization of mental health concerns in society. These concepts of mainstreaming and resonance are commonly observed in pop culture and everyday life, highlighting the pervasive influence of media on individuals' perceptions, attitudes, and behaviors. Application to Paranormal Beliefs: The predictions of the cultivation theory about how media exposure affects belief in the paranormal are consistently supported by research findings. Research has indicated that people who watch more TV series, films, and documentaries with paranormal themes also tend to believe in more supernatural things. In contrast to individuals who watched such programs less frequently, viewers of paranormal  media were more likely to report believing in ghosts and other supernatural entities, according to a 2019 study by Irwin and Wilson. Comparably, a survey by Bader and Mencken (2020) found that people who regularly read paranormal books or interact with paranormal content online have higher levels of belief in paranormal activity. These results are consistent with the cultivation theory, thereby influencing people's conceptions of what is true and plausible. Consequently, the media's portrayal of the paranormal plays a significant role in shaping societal beliefs, demonstrating the powerful impact of repeated exposure to such themes. Types of Media Content: Beliefs in the paranormal are fostered and reinforced by a variety of media content types. Television programs with a paranormal theme, like "Ghost Hunters" and "The X-Files," captivate audiences with dramatized investigations into psychic phenomena, ghost sightings, and extraterrestrial encounters, portraying these events as credible or even authentic. Horror films such as "The Conjuring" and documentaries about haunted houses or UFO encounters similarly blur the boundaries between fact and fiction by engrossing viewers with fabricated proof that support popular beliefs about paranormal activity. Periodically, news reports on paranormal events present different points of view and add to the public conversation about the veracity of these phenomena. In addition, peer interaction and the sharing of paranormal content on various social media platforms offer a forum for exchanging theories, personal accounts, and purported evidence, which in turn builds a community and sways  beliefs. Collectively, these  interactions influence and normalize paranormal beliefs, which helps explain why they are so widely accepted in modern society. Audience perceptions and beliefs about the paranormal are influenced to differing degrees by different media content genres and formats. Fictional genres like horror films and supernatural thrillers frequently use exaggerated portrayals of ghosts, demons, and other paranormal beings in an effort to arouse suspense and terror. With their thrilling stories and jump scares, these narratives captivate audiences, but they also have the potential to propagate cultural ideas about the presence and potential perils of supernatural forces. Documentary formats, on the other hand, offer what are supposedly factual investigations into paranormal events, presenting a stronger case for the existence of the supernatural through expert opinions, alleged evidence, and interviews. When used with scientific or investigative rigor, this method can give paranormal claims a sense of legitimacy. Though it occurs less frequently, news coverage adds another level by placing paranormal events within journalistic standards. Depending on the editorial position and style of coverage, this can potentially legitimize these phenomena in the eyes of the public. Further influencing people's perceptions are interactive spaces like social media and online forums, where people can encounter skepticism as well as support from like-minded others. In general, audiences' portrayals, perceptions, and internalization of paranormal beliefs are greatly influenced by the genre and format of media content. Thus underscoring the intricate relationship between information, amusement, and belief formation in media consumption. Psychological Mechanisms at Play: A number of psychological processes, which influence how media consumption shapes beliefs and perceptions in regards to paranormal phenomena, are the driving forces behind the cultivation effects in media psychology. Selective exposure is important because people are more likely to seek out media content that confirms their preexisting beliefs in the paranormal, which over time serves to strengthen those beliefs. Social comparison encourages people to contrast their own experiences and beliefs with those portrayed in the media, which may normalize paranormal beliefs by making them seem common or credible. Concurrently, media portrays and perpetuates paranormal ideas more frequently, increasing cognitive accessibility. This increases people's mental access to and plausibility of these beliefs when interpreting unclear or unexplained events. Collectively, these mechanisms within the framework of cultivation theory demonstrate how media content plays a role in the social construction and normalization of paranormal beliefs. These psychological processes have a significant impact on people's attitudes and beliefs when they interact with media portrayals of the paranormal. By encouraging people to contrast their own experiences and beliefs with those portrayed in media narratives, social comparison then intensifies this effect and may cause people to align their beliefs with perceived societal norms presented in the media. At the same time, cognitive accessibility makes sure that people's minds are able to quickly and credibly process paranormal explanations and interpretations, particularly when confronted with unclear or unexplained events. The way in which media representations not only reflect but also actively shape the cultural acceptance and prevalence of paranormal beliefs is demonstrated by this combination of mechanisms found in cultivation theory. This helps to legitimize paranormal beliefs and integrate them into larger societal discourse. Future Directions and Recommendations: Prospective research paths may concentrate on experimental investigations that explore the causal mechanisms behind the effects of cultivation on beliefs related to the paranormal. These investigations could focus on the ways in which individual differences, exposure duration, and particular media content interact to influence beliefs about paranormal events. Interventions intended to lessen the impact of media cultivation on the formation of beliefs may benefit from an understanding of these mechanisms. It's also critical to suggest methods for teaching media literacy and developing critical thinking abilities. Developing critical thinking abilities, skepticism, and media bias awareness can enable people to assess paranormal depictions in the media critically. These educational strategies may assist people, particularly vulnerable populations, in better navigating media influences and developing more informed perspectives on paranormal phenomena by encouraging a more discerning approach to media consumption. Future studies should examine the underlying causal mechanisms that underlie the effects of media cultivation on paranormal beliefs, with a particular emphasis on individual variations, the length of exposure, and media content in particular. The processing of information is changing quickly due to the emergence of technologies like virtual reality and artificial intelligence. This could lead to more immersive environments and tailored content, which could amplify beliefs in the paranormal. This emphasizes how important it is to teach critical thinking and media literacy so that people can resist the pull of the media. Comprehending and tackling the consequences of these technologies is essential, highlighting the necessity of continuous investigation and preemptive actions to lessen their influence on the formation of beliefs. Conclusion: Important discoveries about the impact of cultivation theory on media-portrayed paranormal beliefs highlight the critical role that extended media exposure plays in forming and sustaining beliefs in paranormal phenomena. According to cultivation theory, people who are repeatedly exposed to paranormal content may develop a worldview that is consistent with media narratives, which may cause them to exaggerate their beliefs in ghosts, aliens, or psychic abilities. It is essential to comprehend the psychological processes that underlie cultivation effects because they shed light on the ways in which belief formation is influenced by selective exposure, social comparison, and cognitive accessibility. The aforementioned observations carry significant consequences for societal perspectives, cultural standards, and personal conduct. They underscore the importance of interdisciplinary cooperation between psychologists, media scholars, and educators. Evidence-based interventions are necessary to enable people to critically navigate media influences and form more nuanced perspectives on paranormal beliefs. Examples of these interventions include critical thinking training and media literacy programs. In order to support informed decision-making and the well-being of society, it is necessary to conduct continuing research and take proactive steps in addressing the intricate relationship between media, cognition, and belief formation. References: American Psychological Association. (n.d.). Apa PsycNet. American Psychological Association. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2008-12896-001   Geusens, F. (2023). “I see dead people”: Exploring the associations between watching horror and belief in the paranormal. Psychology of Popular Media. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1037/ppm0000513   Maltby, John & Day, Liza. (2001). Spiritual involvement and belief: The relationship between spirituality and Eysenck's personality dimensions. Personality and Individual Differences. 30. 187-192. 10.1016/S0191-8869(00)00024-6  Milton, J. and Wiseman, R. (1999), A meta-analysis of mass-media tests of extrasensory perception. British Journal of Psychology, 90: 235-240. https://doi.org/10.1348/000712699161378    Perera, A. (2023, September 7). Gerbner’s cultivation theory in media communication. Simply Psychology. https://www.simplypsychology.org/cultivation-theory.html#What-is-Cultivation-Theory    Sparks , G., & Miller, W. (n.d.). Purdue News. Media messages may encourage paranormal belief.  https://www.purdue.edu/uns/html4ever/0105.Sparks.paranormal.html#:~:text=%22We%20can%27t%20make%20a%20definitive%20conclusion%20that%20paranormal,exposure%20to%20paranormal%20depictions%20does%20increase%20paranormal%20belief    Sparks, G. G., Nelson, C. L., & Campbell, R. G. (1997). The relationship between exposure to televised messages about paranormal phenomena and paranormal beliefs. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 41(3), 345–359. https://doi.org/10.1080/08838159709364412    Stise, R., Bingaman, J., Siddika, A., Dawson, W., Paintsil, A., & Brewer, P. R. (2023). Cultivating paranormal beliefs: how television viewing, social media use, and podcast listening predict belief in UFOs. Atlantic Journal of Communication, 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1080/15456870.2023.2187803   van Elk, M., & Aleman, A. (2017). Brain mechanisms in religion and spirituality: An integrative predictive processing framework. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 73, 359–378. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.12.031   Vinney, C. (2019, October 23). What is cultivation theory?. ThoughtCo. https://www.thoughtco.com/cultivation-theory-definition-4588455

By: Catherine Gooch History In his 1817 work titled “An Essay on the Shaking Palsy,” James Parkinson described a progressive condition in which individuals develop a tremor, typically in their hands or arms. At first, he says, it might seem just an inconvenience ; however, as the disease progresses, individuals begin to have difficulty maintaining posture and find themselves falling forward while standing or walking. As the disease progresses further, individuals lose control of other muscles, including those involved in eating and speaking, and also experience dementia. This condition later became known as Parkinson’s Disease. Background Parkinson’s Disease is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by many changes in movement, such as tremors, slow or stiff movement, and difficulty with balance. In addition to these motor symptoms, the disease is also associated with a variety of cognitive symptoms, including worsening memory and visuo-spatial abilities (Roheger et al. 2018). Although it has no known cause, the effects this condition has on motor control are a major area of research and will be the focus of this article.   Motor Control Motor control, unsurprisingly, refers to the ways in which we control all the movements we make in our lives. Although movements like walking or reaching to grab something feel so effortless that we don’t need to put much conscious effort into it, they are actually very complex processes for our nervous system to coordinate. To walk to a particular place, for instance, the brain must first receive inputs about where you are now, where you want to go, and determine the best path to get there. Then, it sends signals to the relevant muscles to contract in such a way that they move the legs through the gait cycle. Importantly, both the magnitude and direction of the forces produced by each muscle vary throughout the duration of the cycle, adding another layer of complexity for the motor commands to account for. There are many hypotheses for how exactly these complex dynamic processes are carried out (Latash et al., 2010), but those will not be discussed here. The key takeaway is that many parts of both the central and peripheral nervous systems are involved in motor control, and damage to any of them can lead to difficulty in coordinating movement.   Basal Ganglia The basal ganglia are a cluster of neurons located deep within the brain that play a major role in motor control. The basal ganglia have many components, including the striatum and substantia nigra. These two structures are connected via the nigrostriatal pathway, which contains neurons that release the neurotransmitter dopamine. Dopamine modulates the behavior of motor neurons throughout the brain and spinal cord, meaning that it is crucial for proper motor function (Vidal-Gadea & Pierce-Shimomura, 2012). In people with Parkinson’s Disease, however, the release of dopamine is impaired due to the loss of neurons in the substantia nigra and other areas (Davie, 2008). This diminished release of dopamine impairs the brain’s ability to control the activity of motor neurons, and is what causes the characteristic motor symptoms of Parkinson’s disease. Lewy Bodies Why do we see a loss of neurons in the basal ganglia? The answer lies with Lewy bodies, the key histological trait of Parkinson’s Disease. These are essentially abnormal clumps of a protein called alpha-synuclein. When these clumps appear inside neurons, they can disrupt the proper functioning of the cell and eventually lead to cell death. In the early stages of Parkinson’s Disease, Lewy bodies begin to form in areas of the brain that lead to non-motor symptoms such as a loss of sense of smell (Burke et al., 2008). Eventually,  they spread to other parts of the brain, notably the substantia nigra. This is when neurons in this area become affected and motor symptoms start to appear. As Parkinson's disease progresses, Lewy bodies continue to spread further, causing many other symptoms, including dementia. Image source: https://parkinsonsnewstoday.com/what-is-parkinsons-disease/ Freezing of Gait In addition to tremors and slow or rigid movement, another symptom that can occur in people with Parkinson’s Disease is freezing of gait. During these episodes, which typically last under a minute, individuals find themselves stuck, unable to move their feet off the ground no matter how much they try to walk. And although their feet are ‘frozen,’ the rest of the body continues to lean forward as if they are walking, often leading to falls. Although not everyone with Parkinson’s Disease experiences these episodes, they pose a major safety risk and are known to decrease quality of life (Walton et al., 2015) for those who do experience them. Although the cause of freezing of gait is not fully understood, several models have been proposed for this phenomenon (Nieuwboer, 2013). For instance, some scientists suggest that freezing of gait occurs when deficits in multiple aspects of motor control add up and altogether cause a breakdown in the motor system, while others see it as being caused by multiple neural circuits being processed at the same time in the basal ganglia, essentially leading to wires getting crossed (Gao et al., 2020). Yet another model suggests that freezing of gait happens when there is a disconnect between the individual’s subconsciously anticipated movements and the actual movement pattern of stepping (Jacobs et al., 2009). While none of these models alone can fully explain every aspect of freezing of gait, they are useful for informing clinical treatment and finding avenues for further research.   Treatment The main treatment for Parkinson’s Disease is a drug called levodopa, which helps to replace the missing dopamine in the brain. After crossing the blood-brain barrier, levodopa  is converted to dopamine,  allowing the nigrostriatal pathway and other areas to function more normally. It is typically taken in combination with carbidopa, which ensures that the rise in dopamine occurs inside the brain rather than in the periphery. Management of Parkinson’s Disease can also be supplemented with certain types of physical therapy. One physical therapy program is known as amplitude training, which focuses on making big, overexaggerated movements to help maintain the ability to produce normally-sized movement. Additionally, some individuals benefit from gait training, where a physical therapist helps them to improve balance when walking. There are even robotic suits being developed, which provide support and reduce the energy required to walk (Kim et al. 2024).   Open Questions in Parkinson’s Research Many aspects of Parkinson’s Disease are not yet fully understood. One type of question is about the extent to which certain symptoms are related to each other. For instance, people with the disease tend to perform individual movements slowly, but when asked to perform two movements either at the same time or one after the other, the total movement is slower than if you had just added the slower individual movements together (Schwab et al., 1954 ; Benecke et al., 1987). Here we have two very similar symptoms: difficulty with both individual and combined movements. But are these caused by the same underlying issue, or are they really two distinct symptoms? That is a difficult question to answer (Mazzoni et al., 2012). Additionally, and perhaps more importantly, there is no known cause of Parkinson’s Disease. It is understood that the disease results from degeneration of the nigrostriatal pathway due to the presence of Lewy bodies, but we do not yet know why the alpha-synuclein proteins aggregate to form Lewy bodies in the first place. Certain gene variants have been implicated as risk factors for developing Parkinson’s Disease, but it is not considered genetic. Age is considered the largest risk factor as most people don’t show symptoms until their 60s, but there is currently no way to accurately predict who will develop the disease as they age and who won’t. This is an active area of research though, with scientists recently suggesting that a blood test might be able to identify the disease up to seven years prior to the first symptoms. These questions and many others are being actively investigated by many scientists, and hopefully in the future there will be better technologies to both predict onset of Parkinson’s Disease before symptoms show, and to help individuals who are living with symptoms. Sources: Mazzoni, P., Shabbott, B., & Cortés, J. C. (2012). Motor control abnormalities in Parkinson's disease. Cold Spring Harbor perspectives in medicine , 2 (6), a009282. https://doi.org/10.1101/cshperspect.a009282 Roheger, M., Kalbe, E., & Liepelt-Scarfone, I. (2018). Progression of Cognitive Decline in Parkinson's Disease. Journal of Parkinson's disease , 8 (2), 183–193. https://doi.org/10.3233/JPD-181306 Opara, J., Małecki, A., Małecka, E., & Socha, T. (2017). Motor assessment in Parkinson`s disease. Annals of agricultural and environmental medicine : AAEM , 24 (3), 411–415. https://doi.org/10.5604/12321966.1232774 Sauerbier, A., Qamar, M. A., Rajah, T., & Chaudhuri, K. R. (2016). New concepts in the pathogenesis and presentation of Parkinson's disease. Clinical medicine (London, England) , 16 (4), 365–370. https://doi.org/10.7861/clinmedicine.16-4-365 Vidal-Gadea, A. G., & Pierce-Shimomura, J. T. (2012). Conserved role of dopamine in the modulation of behavior. Communicative & integrative biology , 5 (5), 440–447. https://doi.org/10.4161/cib.20978 Davie C. A. (2008). A review of Parkinson's disease. British medical bulletin , 86 , 109–127. https://doi.org/10.1093/bmb/ldn013 Latash, M. L., Levin, M. F., Scholz, J. P., & Schöner, G. (2010). Motor control theories and their applications. Medicina (Kaunas, Lithuania) , 46 (6), 382–392. Walton, C. C., Shine, J. M., Hall, J. M., O'Callaghan, C., Mowszowski, L., Gilat, M., Szeto, J. Y., Naismith, S. L., & Lewis, S. J. (2015). The major impact of freezing of gait on quality of life in Parkinson's disease. Journal of neurology , 262 (1), 108–115. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00415-014-7524-3 Nieuwboer, A., & Giladi, N. (2013). Characterizing freezing of gait in Parkinson's disease: models of an episodic phenomenon. Movement disorders : official journal of the Movement Disorder Society , 28 (11), 1509–1519. https://doi.org/10.1002/mds.25683 Gao, C., Liu, J., Tan, Y., & Chen, S. (2020). Freezing of gait in Parkinson's disease: pathophysiology, risk factors and treatments. Translational neurodegeneration , 9 , 12. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40035-020-00191-5 Burke, R. E., Dauer, W. T., & Vonsattel, J. P. (2008). A critical evaluation of the Braak staging scheme for Parkinson's disease. Annals of neurology , 64 (5), 485–491. https://doi.org/10.1002/ana.21541 Jacobs, J. V., Nutt, J. G., Carlson-Kuhta, P., Stephens, M., & Horak, F. B. (2009). Knee trembling during freezing of gait represents multiple anticipatory postural adjustments. Experimental neurology , 215 (2), 334–341. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.expneurol.2008.10.019 Schwab, R. S., Chafetz, M. E., & Walker, S. (1954). Control of two simultaneous voluntary motor acts in normals and in parkinsonism. A.M.A. archives of neurology and psychiatry , 72 (5), 591–598. https://doi.org/10.1001/archneurpsyc.1954.02330050061010 Benecke, R., Rothwell, J. C., Dick, J. P., Day, B. L., & Marsden, C. D. (1987). Disturbance of sequential movements in patients with Parkinson's disease. Brain : a journal of neurology , 110 ( Pt 2) , 361–379. https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/110.2.361 Kim, J., Porciuncula, F., Yang, H. D., Wendel, N., Baker, T., Chin, A., Ellis, T. D., & Walsh, C. J. (2024). Soft robotic apparel to avert freezing of gait in Parkinson's disease. Nature medicine , 30 (1), 177–185. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-023-02731-8 Hällqvist, J., Bartl, M., Dakna, M., Schade, S., Garagnani, P., Bacalini, M. G., Pirazzini, C., Bhatia, K., Schreglmann, S., Xylaki, M., Weber, S., Ernst, M., Muntean, M. L., Sixel-Döring, F., Franceschi, C., Doykov, I., Śpiewak, J., Vinette, H., Trenkwalder, C., Heywood, W. 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Written By: Juliana Morsello Introduction Alyssa has been diagnosed with Major Depressive Disorder. One afternoon, her friend Sarah returned home from a vacation and decided to speak to Alyssa about her time away. Alyssa, who felt completely overcome with sadness and mental fatigue, struggled to fully engage in their conversation. She found herself forgetting parts of Sarah’s story and could not listen nor respond appropriately. Besides her troubles with social interaction, Alyssa also experienced difficulty with remembering tasks and following through with simple instructions given by her parents. Alyssa made the decision to see a neuropsychologist with some encouragement from her friends and family, who were worried about these problems. The neuropsychologist found that Alyssa had severe working memory deficits after administering a number of cognitive tests (e.g., the Digit Span). These deficits, according to her neuropsychologist, were attributed to her depression.  In this article, we will discuss the impact of working memory deficits on individuals like Alyssa who have Major Depressive Disorder. Working Memory You use your working memory when you are doing mental math, trying to retain a phone number, or recalling key details in a storyline while reading. Working memory, also referred to as short-term memory, is the cognitive system that allows us to temporarily store and work with information as we perform complex tasks (Cowan, 2008).  In 1974, Baddeley and Hitch proposed their initial Working Memory Model, which divides short-term memory into three components: the “phonological loop,” the “visuospatial sketchpad,” and the “central executive” (Adams et al. 2018). The phonological loop holds verbal information, while the visuospatial sketchpad holds visual details about object appearance and location. The central executive directs the flow of information to these components and helps control our attention (think of it like a ‘boss’ that oversees the working memory system ). For instance, when you repeat a phone number to yourself in order to remember it later, you are using the phonological loop, which temporarily stores the numeric sequence. If you mentally rehearse a phone number while conversing, you are using the central executive. The central executive can help you shift your attention between keeping the digits in your working memory and processing the conversation. Long-term memory, which will not be discussed in this article, is a type of memory that is stored for an extended period of time (APA Dictionary, 2018). In 2000, Baddeley and Hitch added a component to the Working Memory Model called the episodic buffer (Adams et al., 2018). This component combines information from working memory and long-term memory to create “episodes” (Baddeley, 2000). For instance, you use your episodic buffer when trying to recall a recent vacation. It combines memories of the sights (visuospatial) with more permanent memories, such as the activities you enjoyed. This helps form a comprehensive memory, or episode, of the vacation experience.  In this article, we will review research on each working memory component in individuals who have Major Depressive Disorder.  Major Depressive Disorder Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) is a common mental health condition that is characterized by extreme sadness and other symptoms that interfere with daily life (Bains & Abdijadid, 2023). According to the World Health Organization (WHO), MDD is the third leading contributor to poor health worldwide. In fact, it has been predicted that MDD could top the list by 2030. This disorder is believed to be caused by various factors such as genetic predispositions toward MDD, abnormal brain chemistry, and interpersonal stressors. To receive a diagnosis of MDD, according to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders  (5th ed.; DSM-5; American Psychiatric Association, 2013), individuals must experience five or more symptoms for at least two weeks. One symptom must be persistent low mood or a loss of interest in previously enjoyed activities (anhedonia). The other symptoms can include disturbances in sleep, decreased energy levels, difficulty making decisions, and feelings of worthlessness or guilt, for example.  “Brain Fog” Multiple studies have found that people with MDD struggle with memory and concentration (Parker, 2022). Neuroscientists and psychologists refer to these symptoms as cognitive deficits, but you may know them as “brain fog.” Dr. Parker, an academic psychiatrist (n.d.), observed that while patients may not explicitly state that they suffer from brain fog, they make statements consistent with the concept, like “My thinking is cloudy” and “I also do all the cooking at home, but when I'm depressed, I can't remember the recipe for an omelette” (Parker, 2022).  Working Memory and MDD A type of memory that individuals with MDD commonly experience difficulties with is working memory (Nikolin et al., 2021). For instance, the cooking scenario stated above is a good example. You use your working memory to retain the order when you have to follow a recipe step-by-step. Therefore, it may be a sign of impaired working memory if a depressed person claims they are unable to finish a task like this.  Next, we will review research on working memory in people with MDD. The following paragraphs will describe the methodology and findings of a study conducted by Shan et al. (2018). We will also discuss research on how impaired working memory affects emotional regulation. Study Objective and Methodology   In a study by Shan et al. (2018), the researchers aimed to address conflicting literature on how each component of working memory is impacted in people with MDD. To gain a thorough understanding, they had patients with MDD and healthy controls complete a series of tests. The following were the forward Digit Span test, Visual Reproduction subtest, 2-Back task, Symbol Digits Modalities Test, and the Stroop Color and Word Test. Before we review the results of this study, the purpose of each task will be discussed. Verbal and Visuospatial Tasks During a forward Digit Span test, participants hear a series of numbers and are asked to verbally repeat them. Because this test requires the temporary storage and manipulation of verbal information, it tests the function of (as I am sure you correctly anticipated) the phonological loop (Goetz, 2007). However, during a Visual Reproduction subtest, participants are asked to draw complex pictures after being briefly exposed to them. This tests the function of their visuospatial sketchpad. Because these tests assess verbal and visuospatial working memory, respectively, which are included in the episodic buffer system (Shan et al., 2018), a low score on either of them can indicate impairments in the episodic buffer.  “Updating” Task The 2-Back task, Symbol Digits Modalities Test, and Stroop Color and Word Test measure central executive functioning (Shan et al., 2018). As mentioned earlier, the central executive manages our attention, and it does so in three ways: updating, shifting, and inhibiting (Rodríguez-Nieto et al., 2022). Updating is the process that helps us keep track of changed information, which is required during the 2-Back task. During this task, participants must indicate whether the stimulus they are currently seeing (e.g., letters) matches the one presented two trials earlier (Felver-Gant et al., 2007).  “Shifting” and “Inhibition” Tasks Shifting involves mentally switching between different tasks (refer back to the phone number example from earlier) (Rodríguez-Nieto et al., 2022). This process is necessary when taking the Symbol Digits Modalities Test. Participants are instructed to alternate between focusing on geometric figures and a reference key containing numbers that they must pair the figures with (WPS, n.d.).  Inhibiting refers to the process of suppressing irrelevant information while performing a task. For example, during the Stroop Color and Word Test, one has to specify the color of ink in which a word is printed, rather than the word itself (Scarpina & Tagini, 2017). If “RED” is printed in blue ink, you should say “blue.” This requires you to suppress your automatic response to read the word and instead concentrate on the color of the ink. Findings  Shan et al. (2018) found that patients with MDD performed significantly worse on each test than the healthy controls, which suggests that they were impaired in all known components of working memory. Additionally, the researchers found that patients with MDD had lower levels of specific chemicals in the prefrontal cortex than healthy controls, which could explain their test performance. This is because the prefrontal cortex is a brain region involved in working memory.  Consequently, it may be difficult to temporarily store and use information while completing tasks if one's prefrontal cortex is not working properly. Updating, MDD, and Emotional Regulation Individuals with MDD who struggle to update information may have difficulty regulating their emotions effectively. It has been argued that depressed people struggle to update negative thoughts with new, more positive information (LeMoult J., & Gotlib I. H., 2019), which may lead to long-term self-criticism. For instance, consider a scenario where a person with MDD is given constructive, negative feedback at work. Even after making improvements based on feedback and receiving praise, they may still perceive their performance as inadequate due to their difficulty in updating negative self-perceptions. This ongoing self-criticism can contribute to prolonged feelings of low self-worth and make recovery more difficult. Repetitive negative thinking, such as that above, is called rumination (Songco et al., 2023). According to Chen (2023), research indicates that adolescents who ruminate more frequently have higher levels of depression symptoms and lower working memory functioning. In response, researchers have investigated methods for enhancing working memory among those with MDD. Working memory capacity has been found to be sustainedly increased with long-term working memory training, as opposed to short-term training. However, despite its benefits, long-term training is not universal. Chen (2023) notes that this is due to the significant level of engagement required and the considerable time needed for it to effectively improve working memory, which is time that adolescents may not have.                             Why This Matters… Working memory deficits can significantly impact day-to-day life. For instance, consider the findings of Shan et al. (2018) in a larger context. A person with an impaired phonological loop may find it difficult to retain verbal information, such as complicated instructions and deadlines, or engage in in-depth conversations. These challenges may contribute to the frustration and feelings of inadequacy that many people with MDD experience. Furthermore, the study suggests that tasks requiring updating, shifting, and inhibiting are difficult for individuals with MDD. This can have an impact on their ability to manage time and prioritize their tasks effectively. Notably, these difficulties are especially relevant for college students and those in the workforce, who may have to juggle multiple responsibilities while also dealing with MDD. To enhance the quality of life for these individuals, more research is needed on treatment options. While psychotherapy (also known as talk therapy) is commonly used, there is evidence that cognitive training and physical therapy can also improve cognitive processes like working memory, although fewer studies have focused on these interventions in people with depression (Chen, 2023). Therefore, more research in this area is necessary to provide effective long-term relief from the everyday difficulties posed by working memory deficits. According to Soczynska et al. (2014), medications such as Bupropion and Escitalopram have shown promise in improving verbal and non-verbal working memory in individuals with MDD. It is important to keep in mind, however, that due to possible risks, antidepressants are typically not advised for people younger than 18. Researchers should continue studying low-cost, at-home alternatives to therapy for younger adolescents who might not be able to take certain medications and anyone who cannot afford psychotherapy, cognitive training, or physical therapy. For example, there is growing research on the impact of meditation on working memory (e.g., Youngs et al., 2021).  Given that time constraints may prevent individuals from receiving long-term treatment, researchers should study the efficacy of more intensive but shorter treatments to determine whether they have long-term effects. Overall, further study in this area is critical for improving outcomes for people coping with MDD in academic, professional, and personal settings. Footnote: I hope that you learned more about working memory and MDD! For anyone that needs further clarification or wants to learn more, I have provided some resources below: Working memory: https://www.simplypsychology.org/working-memory.html MDD: https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/24481-clinical-depression-major-depressive-disorder Although we did not discuss cognitive remediation as a method to treat working memory deficits, I wanted to provide some resources on this in case you and/or someone you know could benefit from it :) - https://www.webmd.com/depression/cognitive-remediation-major-depression ;  https://positivepsychology.com/cognitive-remediation-therapy/ https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0165032721001208?via%3Dihub References   Adams, E. J., Nguyen, A. T., & Cowan, N. (2018). 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The effect of bupropion XL and escitalopram on memory and functional outcomes in adults with major depressive disorder: Results from a randomized controlled trial. Psychiatry Research , 220 (1-2), 245–250. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2014.06.053 WPS. (SDMT) symbol digit modalities test . Educational & Psychological Assessments for Clinicians & Educators. (n.d.). https://www.wpspublish.com/sdmt-symbol-digit-modalities-test Youngs, M. A., Lee, S. E., Mireku, M. O., Sharma, D., & Kramer, R. S. S. (2021). Mindfulness Meditation Improves Visual Short-Term Memory. Psychological Reports, 124(4), 1673-1686. https://doi.org/10.1177/0033294120926670

Written by: Vasiliki Maria Loukaki The modern human world is the result of a series of advancements, which have allowed us to communicate, consolidate, and cohabitate to a higher standard compared to what would be permitted solely by our innate capabilities. One of these advancements is mapping, which has broadened our horizons (in the literal and metaphorical sense) by enabling long-distance navigation and thereby trade, transport, and travel. Yet, what if mapping is innate to humans, after all? In fact, what if this capability not only predates the invention of cartography but also transcends the traditional, geographical definition of what a map even is? In the traditional definition, a map is a graphical representation of the relative distances and directions between spatial landmarks that facilitates navigation in the physical space. Neuroscientists such as Tolman (1948) and O’Keefe & Nadel (1978) were amongst the first to propose that human navigation relies upon a mental representation of the physical space, which they referred to as a cognitive map. A cognitive map is similar to a traditional map, being able to encode for relative distance and direction, with the main difference being that it only exists in one’s mind. Notably, since its inception, cognitive mapping has been viewed as a kind of “general coding mechanism” that can be applied to a breadth of abstract contexts “covering any domain” (Whittington et al., 2022). Therefore, scientists have attempted to use cognitive mapping to decipher abstract skills that humans possess, but are poorly understood. Examples of such abstract skills include language, musicality, and sociality; the latter being the focus of this article.  In the hopes of uncovering the neural underpinnings of human sociality, Tavares et al. (2015) designed a first-person, role-playing game in which participants assumed they had just relocated to a new town and had to secure housing and employment by interacting with various non-player characters (NPCs). Throughout the game, participants could decide whether or not to obey a demand made by an NPC, thus increasing or decreasing said NPC’s power over them. Additionally, they could decide whether or not to make personal conversation with an NPC, thus increasing or decreasing said NPC’s affiliation  to them. Based on their decisions, participants could modulate these two variables to create a custom set of coordinates for each NPC they interacted with. Thus, similar to how a spatial cognitive map uses the dimensions of latitude and longitude to denote the location of an object within physical space, a social cognitive map could use the dimensions of power and affiliation  to denote the location of a person within social space. Therefore, the social cognitive map is acting as a guide to social interaction, helping the user navigate through the intricacies and nuances of the social network. To determine whether the human brain can monitor changes in power and affiliation , participants were placed in an fMRI scanner to visualise their brain activity throughout the game. They discovered that specific levels of activity in the hippocampus (i.e., the region of the brain associated with cognitive mapping) correlated with specific sets of coordinates within the social space.  Indeed, participants could keep track of the decisions they were making throughout the game and the impact of said decisions on their relationships with the NPCs. As a result, they could mentally position each NPC within the social space, according to said NPC’s power and affiliation  relative to them. In other words, they could construct a social cognitive map to help them monitor their social relationships across time. Additionally, participants who were better at monitoring changes in power  and affiliation  were also less socially avoidant, less neurotic, and more conscientious according to personality questionnaires that they filled out after completing the game. This suggests that social mapping aptitude translates to social skills. Perhaps the most interesting implication of the study of social skills through the lens of cognitive mapping is that it provides a seemingly convincing explanation for how these skills evolved in the first place. It tells a story, whereby cognitive mapping initially evolved to accommodate the universally fundamental skill of navigation (critical to all species) and was subsequently adapted to also accommodate the skill of sociality (particularly critical to species living in large groups).  Although the philosophical framework of cognitive mapping has been thoroughly contemplated for decades, the precise neural mechanics remain unknown. The idea that the abstract skills characterising the human species could be boiled down to a standardised mental model for arranging information in the likeness of a map is temptingly plausible. Theoretically, any abstract concept could be defined in dimensional variables and thus operate within its own abstract space. As defined by Tavares et al. (2015), the existence of a social space merits further exploration. Furthermore, the implementation of first-person, role-playing games is exemplary and should be commonplace in cognitive neuroscience research. What remains to be seen is whether further research and technological advancements will help pinpoint the neural underpinnings of the human cognitive map. References: O’Keefe, J., & Nadel, L. (1978). The Hippocampus as a Cognitive Map . Oxford Clarendon. Tavares, R., Mendelsohn, A., Grossman, Y., Williams, C., Shapiro, M., Trope, Y., & Schiller, D. (2015). A Map for Social Navigation in the Human Brain. Neuron , 87 (1), 231–243. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2015.06.011 Tolman, E. C. (1948). Cognitive maps in rats and men. Psychological Review , 55 (4), 189–208. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0061626 Whittington, J. C. R., McCaffary, D., Bakermans, J. J. W., & Behrens, T. E. J. (2022). How to build a cognitive map. Nature Neuroscience , 25 (10), 1257–1272. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41593-022-01153-y